Those who rely on automatic log-in features may get in trouble when they have to actually remember what resides behind those asterisks. This concept for KRyLack Password Decryptor offers help for those situations, but we ran into problems with its functionality in our tests.
Courses for E&E students – Prospectus All of our incoming students are required to collect at least 15 ECTS credits/semester towards their degree programme at their home university. Courses for Erasmus and Exchange students taught in English. Dynamics of T-cell infiltration during the course of ovarian cancer: the gradual shift from a Th17 effector cell response to a predominant infiltration by regulatory T-cells. International Journal of Cancer, 2013, sv.
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY IN BRATISLAVA FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING INSTITUTE OF POWER AND APPLIED ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AMBASSADE DE FRANCE EN SLOVAQUIE RUSSIAN CENTRE OF SCIENCE AND CULTURE IN BRATISLAVA SUT Centre for nanodiagnostics, Bratislava Deveho consulting, Bratislava o.z. MECHATRONIKA Bratislava 14th International symposium MEMS 2016 Middle - Europa Mechatronics-Symposium Mitteleuropäisches Mechatronik-Symposium (MECHATRONICA 2016, Autotronica, Nanotronica, Biomechatronica, Comparative Technology) Conference is cooperated with SASI and SVTS 25-27 May 2016 Bratislava, Slovak republic 1
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 14th International symposium MEMS 2016 Middle - Europa Mechatronics-Symposium Mitteleuropäisches Mechatronik-Symposium (MECHATRONICA 2016, Autotronica, Nanotronica, Biomechatronica, Comparative Technology) INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMME COMMITTEE Assoc. Prof. Eng. Branislav Hučko, PhD. SUT Bratislava, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, chairman Prof. Eng. František Janíček, CSc. Institute of Power and Applied Electrical Engineering (FEI) STU Bratislava, vicechairman Prof. Eng. Viktor Ferencey, CSc. SUT Bratislava, vice-chairman Prof. Eng. Ján Híveš, PhD. SUT Bratislava Prof. Eng. Peter Šolek, CSc. SUT Bratislava Academician Ivan Plander, TnUni, Trenčín Prof. Eng. Ivan Kneppo, DrSc. Nové Sady Prof. Eng. Jozef Sláma, CSc. SUT Bratislava Prof. Eng. Jaromír Volf, DrSc. CZU Praha Prof. Eng. Ladislav Jurišica, CSc., SUT Bratislava Prof. Eng. Marián Tolnay, PhD. SASI Bratislava Assoc. Prof. Eng. Juraj Wagner. CSc. MŠ SR Assoc. Prof.Eng. Ján Vlnka, PhD., SUT Bratislava Assoc. Prof. Eng. Marián Králik, CSc. SUT Bratislava Dipl. Ing. Jozef Šoltés, Univ. Munchen Assoc. Prof. Eng.Vítězslav Styskala, PhD. VŠB, TU Ostrava Prof. Eng. Ivan Andonov, DrSc. TU Sofia Assoc. Prof. Eng.Maria Georgieva DINKOVA,PhD, UCHT, Plovdiv Dr. Wasef S. Lababneh, Amman Univ. Prof. Eng. Pavol Kováč, PhD. Univ. Novi Sad Eng. Pavol Kováč, DrSc. EÚ SAV Bratislava Eng. Angel I. Pavlov, CSc. SUT Bratislava 2
Assoc. Prof. PhDr. Stanislav Benčič, PhD. UK Bratislava Assoc. Prof.Eng. Vladislav Singule, CSc., TU Brno Martina Saganová, Ambassade de France Eng. Ján Kandráč, CSc. Risc Consul s.r.o. Eng. Peter Zajac, Liv ELEKTRA a.s. Bratislava MUDr. Peter Reiner, CSc. OZS MZ SR Eng. Jozef Gálik, President of the Slovak eagle Eng. Lakhdar Bouadjenak, Algeria Eng. Vladimír Huertas, PhD. Peru Egil Lejon, Norway Ing. Viliam Vretenár, PhD., SUT Bratislava Eng. Zuzana Krajčušková, PhD. SUT Bratislava Organizing committee Assoc. Prof. Eng. Ján Vlnka, PhD. chairman Eng. Martin Zuzák, Deveho consulting, Bratislava Eng. Lubo Suláni, MV Eng. Miro Horvát., SUT Bratislava Eng. Zuzana Krajčušková, PhD. ÚEF FEI SUT Assoc. Prof. Eng. Marián Králik, CSc. SUT Bratislava Eng. Angel I. Pavlov, CSc. SUT Bratislava Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Bratislava, Slovak University of Technology, 2016 Editor Ján Vlnka Layout and Design: Ján Vlnka Number of copies printed: 50 Year of Publication: 2016 ISBN ISBN 978-80-227-4564-2 3
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 Contents 4 Foreword 6 Invited papers: LUBY Štefan, LUBYOVÁ Martina How to Avoid Pathologic Phenomena in Science 7 PLANDER Ivan Next Generation of Computing Systems: Artificial Intelligence 14 PLANDER Ivan, STEPANOVSKY Michal An Interdisciplinary Approach to the Designe of Multiphysics Mechatronic Systems: The Electrostatic Actuator Design Case Study 16 Scientific contributions: BAWERS BAKER Montaño Jacanamijoy Ecuador Analysis and Control of a Hovercraft 27 CABAN Roman, VLNKA Ján GOECO Project Integrated Energy Concepts 46 FERENCEY Viktor, BUGÁR Martin Cornering Control System for Smal UGV 53 FERENCEY Viktor, MADARAS Juraj, OMACHELOVÁ Milada Approach to Modelling of the Electric Vehicle Motion Dynamics 60 GAŠPARÍK Marek Controlling certain function of the car remotely using a smartphone 73 HUBA Mikuláš, FERENCEY Viktor Development and Education in the E-Mobility 81 KAMENSKÝ Miroslav, KRÁLIKOVÁ Eva, ČERVEŇOVÁ Jozefa Labview and Data Socket Usage for Remote Control of a Workplace 88 4
KOVÁČ Tomáš, HORVÁT František, ČEKAN Michal, HUČKO Branislav Riešenie aluminium-gálium-nitridovej membrány pomocou numerického výpočtu v ANSYS multiphysics 97 PAVELKA Jozef Development of mechatronic system medical and sports purposes 109 PAVELKA Jozef Vývoj mechatronickej nadstavby pre medicínske a športové účely 119 PAVLOV Angel, ANDONOV Ivan Mechatronické aspekty riadenia automatizovaanej stochastickej strojárskej výrobnej zostavy 129 PŘIBIL, Jiří, DERMEK, Tomáš: Experimental Laser Beam Scaner Equipment for 3D Surface Mapping and Reconstruction 133 TOLNAY Marián, BACHRATÝ Michal, KRÁLIK Marian, VLNKA Ján Cheking of Tips of Welding Electrodes by Using Visualization in Robotics 142 VLNKA Ján, PANEVA Ekaterina Macedonia Supervision of the Proces of Eddy Current Magnetic Separation 150 VLNKA Ján Problémy vyučovania elektrotechniky na Strojníckej fakulte STU 167 KANDRÁČ Ján Problémy VN batérií pre ELEKTROMOBILY 173 MORHÁČ Martin Industry 4.0 digitálne dvojča 177 KRÁLIK, Marian, Tekulová, Zuzana Circumvention the Obstacles by Using Robot Application of Lee Algorithm on the Robot with Scara Kinematics 180 DARMO Jozef Genéza geopolitických zón masmediálnych manipulácii vo vzťahu k perspektívnej 4. industriálnej revolúcii a k výchove ku kreativite 189 CHURSIN Alexander Aleksandrovich, MEČÁR Miroslav, SEMENOV Alexander Sergeevich The Innovations in the Economy with Exhaustible Resource Sector 202 BENČIČ Stanislav Technological Development and its Influence Towards World Prosperity and Decline 223 STAŠ Ondrej, BACHRATÝ Michal, TOLNAY Marián, VLNKA Ján Navádzanie manipulačného systému vizuálnou stopou 226 5
Foreword 14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 Dear ladies and gentlemen, we cordially greet you at the 14 th International Symposium MEMS Middle - Europa Mechatronics-Symposium, Mechatronika 2016. During our last Mechatronika 2009 we agreed that that the next Mechatronika meeting would be in UAD in Trenčin. It is symbolic that Mechatronika symposium is back home, because we it is the 14 th. The Meeting is known as Mechatronika, but we have renamed it the MEMS Middle - Europa Mechatronics- Symposium. MECHATRONICA 2016 Autotronica, Nanotronica, Mechatronics, comparative technology like the previous MECHATRONICS annual events aims to convey information on the current state and further development of Mechatronics, Autotronics, Nanotronics and Comparative technology in the educational process to employees of educational, scientific and other organizations. It will therefore be an appropriate platform for exchanges of experience gained in this process and for the creation of opportunities for further development of cooperation between university teachers, researchers and people directly from practice. The results and conclusions of the symposium will be summarized in the recommendations for staff dealing with these issues. The goal of the meeting will be: current state and trends of mechatronics, autotronics, nanotronics and comparative technologies, training in mechatronics, autotronics, nanotronics, biomechatronics, comparative technologies, hydrogen energy, cooperation of departments focused on mechatronics, autotronics, nanotronics, biomechatronics, comparative technology, hydrogen energy, micromechatronics, curriculum continuity for mechatronics, autotronics, nanotronics, biomechanics and comparative technology, the conceived objectives of professional studies, mechanotherapy and biomechanics in sports and medicine services, humanization technologies, and the development of human resources, tools and equipment for laboratory exercises and introduction to the industry. The whole program will have two parts. The first part will be dedicated to the strategic issues of the 4 th industrial revolution and the role of education within it. The second part will be dedicated to research issues. At the end of the discussions, we would like to arrange an excursion. We are looking forward to meeting all of you at Mechanical Engineering SUT, and in the meantime we wish you all the best. All papers are reviewed. Bratislava, May 25.-27. 2016 Assoc. prof. Eng. Ján Vlnka, PhD. Chairman of the Organizing Committee 6
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 HOW TO AVOID PATHOLOGIC PHENOMENA IN SCIENCE Prof. Ing. Štefan Luby, DrSc. Institute of Physics SAS, Bratislava, Slovakia tel.: + 421 2 5941 0574 e-mail: [email protected] JUDr. Mgr. Martina Lubyová, PhD. Centre of Social and Psychological Sciences SAS, Bratislava, Slovakia tel.: +421 2 5249 5114, e-mail: [email protected] Abstract While the expression pathological science was introduced by I. Langmuir already in 1953, the term regained popularity recently, as increasing investment into science and growing competition expand the ground for scientific misconduct. In this paper we discuss scientific fraud in its multiple forms, such as falsification and fabrication of data, plagiarism, trading with papers and co-authorships, defrauding of funds, incorrect grant practices, etc. We identify the driving forces of misconduct as career pressures, anticipation of results, and working in the field where experiments are not precisely reproducible. The most visible fraud examples with their statistical distribution among countries are provided. While serious cases of misconduct appear in the process of seeking awards and prizes in countries with top research excellence, in the developing world the typical forms include self-plagiarism, conflict of interests in grant policy, or bribery. Finally, we elaborate on the policies supporting the research integrity. Keywords Pathological science, ethics, fraud in science, comparative analysis, research integrity 1. INTRODUCTION This work is related to the effort to provide a typology for pathological phenomena in science both in Slovakia and in the world, reflecting on the current status quo that is characterised by such phenomena as missing intellectual security of the state, brain drain of our young generation, low average achievements of new professors, cloning of new universities, lack of transparency in grant practices, self-plagiarism, existence of sizeable new research infrastructures without running costs and withdrawal of top representatives of our 7
institutions from their positions. Unless these phenomena are recognised and addressed, our research might fall into a trap. 2. A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE A popular picture of scientist from the period before 1989 as ethically coherent personality who invests all his/her time and even own money into the strive for new knowledge was far from the reality. Great intellectual hoaxes paved the way of science, research and discoveries already in the previous centuries. In [1] we can find stories about Frederic A. Cook who asserted that he reached the North pole in April 1908, almost one year before admiral Robert E. Peary. Another infamous example is Paul Schliemann, a grandson of Heinrich Schliemann, discoverer of Troy, who declared that using the documentation of his grandfather and his own research he proved the existence of Atlantis. Even the icons of physics and biology are not completely deprived of doubt. According to [2], Isaac Newton introduced fudge factor to increase the predictive power of his work; Johann G. Mendel results were too good to be true; Robert Millikan misinterpreted his measurements of the charge of electron to make his results more convincing, etc. The expression pathological science was introduced by Irving Langmuir, Nobel laureate in chemistry, in 1953. His work was reprinted in 1989 [3]. Examples given at that time by Langmuir, like extrasensory perception, flying saucers and UFOs, water dowsing, Martian canals and biological effects of magnetic fields sound weary today, but new problems keep emerging. 3. WHY FRAUD APPEARS? The field of science is nowadays endowed with sizeable investments that act as an inhibitor for the pathological effects and processes from inside the scientific circles, but also from outside. We can speak about the rent-seeking behaviour. Governments support research and development systematically since the end of WW2 as a consequence of the decisive role of science that was proved in the war. For example, in the United States such a program was formulated in the document by Vannevar Bush, science advisor to the US President in WW2, entitled Science, the Endless Frontier. According to [4], three motives that have been behind the scientific fraud are as follows: (a) the perpetrators are under career pressure; (b) they knew, or thought they knew the answer to the problem and try to shorten the road to fame and glory 1 ; and (c) researchers often work 1 It is noteworthy that at certain level of knowledge the discoveries or inventions, e.g. giant magnetoresistance or semiconductor laser, appeared independently in the same period at different places. 8
in the fields where experiments are not precisely reproducible. This situation gives rise to the appearance of fraud in biomedicine, psychology, nanoscience, 2 etc. 4. CLASSIFICATION OF PATHOLOGY IN SCIENCE As follows from [4] and [5], and our own experience, the basic forms of pathology in science can be classified as follows: (a) Fraud, misconduct - falsification and fabrication of data, plagiarism and self-plagiarism; (b) Trading with publications including papers, citations and co-authorships, multiplication of journals and conferences; (c) Fraud of funds, science as playground of fraudulent business, e.g. with pharmaceuticals and dietary supplements, or deformed grant practices. Falsification means manipulation of research materials, equipment, processes, changing or omitting data or results. Fabrication includes making up data or results and recording or reporting them. Plagiarism means appropriation of another person s ideas, results or words without giving him/her due credit. Among the characteristics of pathological results in [6], the most visible are: magnitude of effect is independent of the intensity of the cause, effects are close to the limit of detectability, great accuracy is claimed and fantastic theories are suggested, criticisms are met by ad hoc excuses. In an attempt to deal with fraudulent behaviour, many renowned institutions formulate their own approaches. E.g. at Caltech [4] the consecutive steps are removal from the project, letter of reprimand, special monitoring of future work, probation or suspension, salary or rank reduction, termination of employment. 5. MOST VISIBLE FRAUD EXAMPLES IN THE DEVELOPED WORLD In this section we provide a qualitative overview of the fraudulent behaviour in science by giving the examples of selected infamous cases [4, 7]. Among them, a considerable attention was paid to the so-called cold fusion (M. Fleischmann, S. Pons, Toyota), the announcement of new element 118 at Lawrence Berkeley Natl. Lab., where V. Ninov was supposed to fabricate data, or to the discoveries by J. H. Schön at Bell Laboratories, who falsified results in 17 publications incl. those in Nature and Science. Before the scandal was disclosed, he was called Tiger Woods of physics. In the field of psychology among the most visible cases was that of J. Förster from the University of Amsterdam. Examination committee concluded that the patterns in published papers were statistically impossible. At the time he was granted a prestigious appointment as A. von Humboldt Professor at Ruhr University Bochum with grant funds of approximately 5 million Euros. The reaction of president of Humboldt foundation was disappointing [8]. E. A. K. Alsabti born in Iraq is considered to be among the top plagiators. He picked articles from obscure journals, changed their titles and sent them under 2 Nanoscience studies the intermediate state of matter between molecules and crystals where the primary quality transforms into a secondary one in a process of chaotic transition. 9
his own name to other obscure journals [7]. There is also a Nobel laureate, D. Baltimore, who has been involved in the fraudulent publication by his student. In order to proceed to a more quantitative overview, in Tab. 1 we quote the statistics of 48 notable misconduct cases from [6]. It can be seen that the fraud flourishes mostly at top research units in the countries with top research excellence, where the motivation is strong in the quest for prestigious positions and grants. This is obviously not the case of Slovakia. The scientific excellence in Europe was evaluated by the European Commission [9], based on a simple algorithm using indicators related to ERC grants, patenting, ranking of universities and highly cited papers. According to this evaluation the EU average score was 48, while that of the Netherlands was 79, Germany 63, Czech Republic 30, and Slovakia 18. Tab. 1 Ranking of countries in notable scientific misconduct cases Country No. of cases Country No. of cases Canada 1 Norway 2 China 1 Romania 2 Denmark 1 Saudi Arabia 1 Germany 4 South Africa 1 Great Britain 4 Republic of Korea 1 Israel 1 Spain 2 Japan 5 Switzerland 1 Netherland 3 USA 18 Source: [6] 6. PUBLICATION BAZAAR A similar expression was used in [5] to characterize the situation in fast developing countries, esp. in China. The research capacity of China is estimated to be about 1 million full-time equivalents (FTE). This represents a quantitative growth that opens the door also to various phenomena in terms of ethics. The publication business is flourishing, the Gold standard being a paper in a top journal. Reportedly, the prize for co-authorship can be as high as 25 000 USD. Papers can be edited without proper experiments. The Chinese Academy of Sciences declared the program of moral integrity. Adhering to the tradition of leaps China strives to make a major move ahead also in science. However, in this field the way to success is slow and bound by the historical developments. For example, by analysing the Nobel prizes granted for physics, we can show that at present the position of the United States (winning about half of all prizes) is rather stable, while the UK is going down and Germany with Japan 10
are slowly rising. At the same, time, no positive shift in the developing world is observed. The only positive tendencies in the developing world are driven through double affiliations, such as, for example, India or Taiwan with the UK or USA, etc. It should be mentioned, however, that the fast growth in China and India is largely behind the quantitative growth of world publications that continue to be exponential (since 1900), whereas the time needed for duplication of the world number of papers is 11.8 years. 7. THE PROBLEMS IN CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE INCLUDING SLOVAKIA Among the central problems in the CEE region we consider the prevalence of quantity over quality. This is caused, inter alia, by the plagiarism that occurs at all levels of scientific work, including at the early stages of acquiring the educational diplomas. Self-plagiarism, multiplication of publications and mutual co-authorships are quite common. The factors that contribute to these phenomena are the strong focus on scientometric evaluations, many grants with under-threshold financing, pressure for acknowledgements, etc. For example, from our not yet published analysis it follows that in the CEE there are on average more authors per paper than in the Western Europe. A qualitatively new situation in CEE is formed due to the distribution of the EU structural funds. In this respect, it is worth attention to read in the paper [11]: A scientific oligarchy with close ties to policymakers writes the rules for the transfer of unprecedented amounts of public money into (semi-) private firms purchasing overpriced, duplicated or even useless equipment. It is assumed that the percentage of funds which flow into corruption is > 20 %, but this is a very conservative estimation [12]. In Slovakia the growth of publications does not follow the world trends, which we think is not a critical problem. The number of citations is growing due to the new phenomenon of massive quotations by the Chines researchers (mainly in the natural sciences), more careful individual recording, new databases such as Scopus, or incorporation of conference proceedings into monitoring process. A serious problem in the CEE is the low level of patenting. In order to illustrate the gravity of the problem, it is enough to note that Austria has more patents that the whole CEE [10]. In addition to the common CEE factors, the Slovak situation is characteristic by the institutionally embedded conflict of interests in grant agencies whereas the evaluation of the projects has to be done by the members of the small research community. 8. CONCLUSION 20-th century was not a century of dramatic increase of fraud, rather of its increased exposure. The future in this field is also linked to the processes of globalized access to information and more transparent environment. One can no longer assume the misconduct cases are isolated phenomena and that majority of them will never be disclosed. It is assumed 11
that the rise of open publication on the internet will be favourable for the disclosure of misconduct [7]. In electronic publications the readership is broader, access is simpler, which enables not-cited authors to detect and protest various cases. Also the pressures to condense text ( these data are not shown here ) disappear. The most crucial role in the fight against the fraudulent behaviour in science has to be played by institutions. Their responses, rules-setting and enforcement are central. The responses by senior scientists and administrators have not proven to provide useful models for curbing various negative phenomena and practices described in this paper. The Slovak scientific community has to pay more attention to the problems of fraud, misconduct and integrity of science. Slovakia is lagging behind in this field likewise in several others areas, including the scientific excellence. Otherwise a legitimate question can be asked as to the extent to which our science can be self-correcting, which is bordering on the issues of self-governance in science. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors are grateful to L. E. Roth, Pasadena, for his useful comments and suggestions that contributed to this work. REFERENCES [1] Silverberg, R.: Scientists and Scoundrels. Published by University of Nebraska Press Lincoln and London 2007, ISBN-13: 978-0-8032-5989-8. [2] Broad, W., Wade, N.: Betrayers of the Truth. Published by Simon & Schuster New York 1982, ISBN: 0-671-44769-6. [3] Langmuir, I., Pathological science, Colloquium at the Knolls Res. Lab. 18. 12. 1953. Physics Today, 42, October 1989, p. 36 48. [4] Goodstein, D.: On Fact and Fraud. Published by Princeton University Press Princeton and Oxford 2010, ISBN: 978-0-691-13966-1. [5] Hvistendahl, M.: China s publication bazaar. Science, 342, November 2013, p. 1035 1039. [6] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/scientific_misconduct. [7] Judson, H. F.: The Great Betrayal: Fraud in Science. Published by Harcourt Inc. Orlando 2004, ISBN: 0-15-100877-9. [8] Schwarz, H.: Honesty in Science a thing of past? Humboldt Kosmos, No. 104/2015, p. 17. 12
[9] Research and Innovation performance in EU member states and associated countries 2013, EC - DG Research and Innovation, eds. J. Stierna and P. Vigier, Brussels, 2013, ISBN: 978-92-79-22832-2. [10] Strauss, J.: Personal communication. [11] Tomáška, L., Nosek, J.: Science in a Small Europeran Country Why SR ranks far behind comparable European countries? The Scientist, 28. 1. 2014, UK. [12] Baláţ, V.: www.aktuality.sk, 27. 4. 2014. 13
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 Next Generation of Computing Systems: Artificial Intelligence Ivan Plander European Polytechnic Institute, Osvobozeni 699, 686 04 Kunovice, Czech Republic Abstract Initially, computer generations were perceived as generations of computer hardware usually four generations. First generation: Vacuum tubes; Second generation: Transistors; Third generation: Integrated circuits (silicon chips containing multiple tranistors); Fourth generation: Microprocessors. The fifth generation of computer systems (FGCS) project was inaugurated in 1983 by the Japan. Establishing new technology was the primary aim of the project. The FGCS project would integrate advances in VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration), data base system,s, artificial intelligence and human computer interface into a new range of computers. FGCS project was closely related to the field of artificial intelligence. Knowledge systems or expert systems were based on the idea of making a consultation system by representing knowledge into rules. Natural language processing was also solved. The project was based on the concept of logic programming. The logic programming was aimed at developing programming languages based on systems of logic like predicate logic and using them for programming. The FGCS project did not meet with commercial success. The highly parallel computer architecture was surpassed in speed by less specialized hardware. A primary problem was the choice of concurrent logic programming as the bridge between the parallel computer architecture and the use of logic as a knowledge representation and problem solving language because concurrent constraint logic programming interfered with the logical semantics of the languages. Another problem was the existing CPU performance quickly pushed through the obvious barriers and the value of parallel computing quickly dropped to the point where it was for some time used only in niche situations. A number of planed workstations generally found themselves soon outperformed by of the shelf units available commercially. In spite of the possibility of considering the project failure, many flavors of parallel computing began to proliferate. Including multi-core architecture at the low-end and massively passing at the high end, when clock frequency of CPUs began to move into 3-5 GHz range. Massive parallelism is used in supercomputer architecture. In 2014 USA was delivering two new supercomputers to dethrone China s Tianhe-2A (Milky Way) from its position as world s fastest supercomputer. The two computers, Sierra and Summit, are each exceed Tianhe-2 s 55 peak petaflop/s (peta = ). Summit, the more powerful of two, deliver 150 300 peak petaflops/s. USA is developing an exascale (exa = 1000 petaflop/s) system. The next generation of computer systems, supposedly the sixth generation, will be not coming out of hardware technology however it will be based on artificial intelligence therefore these 14
computers would be called as intelligent generation of computer systems. The computer technology will reach a new maturity. The next generation computing systems will integrate artificial intelligence and the human computer interface into a new range of computers that would be closer to the people in their communication and knowledge processing capabilities. Commercial possibilities of AI are accepted: natural language interaction with computers is possible in commercial systems; and expert systems encoding human expertise could be used to enhance human decision making in medicine, technological design and other fields. The next generation of computer systems will use optical logic and storage; organic processing elements; quantum computing and other technologies; however they will be not subject of the research and development of the next generation computing systems. In contrast will be examined modeling of emotion and awareness; audio and visual sensors; multimodal modeling; cognitive computing and creation of question answering systems that will apply advanced natural language processing, information retrieval, knowledge representation, automated reasoning and machine learning technologies to the field of open domain question answering. It will be potentially a coming machine revolution. Artificial intelligence and the new (sixth) generation of computing systems will transform the world analogically as the industrial revolution in the 18th century. 15
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 AN INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO THE DESIGN OF MULTIPHYSICS MECHATRONIC SYSTEMS: THE ELECTROSTATIC ACTUATOR DESIGN CASE STUDY Abstract Prof. Ivan Plander, DrSc. European Polytechnic Institute, Kunovice, Czech Republic e-mail: [email protected] Ing. Michal Stepanovsky, PhD. Czech Technical University in Prague, Praha 6, Czech Republic e-mail: [email protected] Recent micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) use various principles and phenomena in order to provide required functionality. Due to the interdisciplinary nature of such systems, their design is often a difficult and complex task requiring knowledge from multiple engineering fields. The main complexity in the design is to provide the system with the necessary abilities and to identify possible design drawbacks. In this paper, we demonstrate that the synergy of multiple engineering fields can be reached through the analysis of the designed system and its optimization. In presented case study, we consider an electrostatic parallel-plate actuator. This type of actuator is one of the most successful commercialized examples of this actuator widely applied in MEMSbased optical switches. As indicated by the simulation results of this paper, many of existing actuator designs have not their dynamic characteristics sufficiently optimized, and therefore, they do not fully exploit the potential of such systems. Our results are supported by simulation experiments, which consider the electrostatic actuator as multiphysics system described by partial differential equations. Keywords Mechatronic approach, Interdisciplinarity, Electrostatic actuator, Modeling and simulation, Optimization 1. INTRODUCTION The advancement of micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) requires mechatronic-based approach. The system is considered as a whole, but the knowledge on interacting subsystems is required. The mechatronic-based interdisciplinary approach utilizes a synergistic integration of mechanics, electronics, control theory and computer technology. This is in contrast to multidisciplinary methodology where just multiple disciplines are brought together. Moreover, one of the most challenging aspects of micro-scale mechatronic systems is added complexity of physical phenomena that are not present or significant in macro-scale. 16
The MEMS-based electrostatic actuator is one of the examples where the mechatronic approach should be applied. The electrostatic actuator can be found in various devices, such as micro-grippers [1], micro-relays [2], inkjet heads in inkjet printers [3], micromirrors in optical scanners [4, 5], in digital light projectors [6] or in optical switches [7, 8]. The electrostatic actuation in MEMS is attractive because of high energy densities and large forces in micro-scale, fast response and low power consumption. The fabrication of electrostatic actuators is compatible with integrated circuit (IC) processes, and thus, MEMS and ICs are integrated together while ICs typically provide functionalities related to the signal and information processing [9, 10]. Formerly, very simple lumped models were used to simulate electrostatic actuators. In recent days, advanced models based on partial differential equations are widely used. These models can be discretized within various methods such as the finite element method (FEM), the finite volume method (FVM), boundary element method (BEM), etc. The simulation software like ANSYS, ABAQUS, COMSOL Multiphysics are generally available FEM analysis tools, and all of them permit mechanical, electrostatic and fluid dynamics calculations. These simulation tools are able to simulate electrostatic actuator in detail and to estimate its actual behavior quite realistically. Nevertheless, without an understanding of the effects appearing inside the actuator, many phenomena of practical importance, such as instability, nonlinearity or twoway coupling side effects cannot be considered adequately, and thus the huge potential of MEMS technology cannot be utilized optimally. Moreover, despite the complexity of current models, these should be extended to capture the interaction with control circuits and with external world. 2. DESIGN OF ELECTROSTATIC ACTUATOR In our case study we consider the parallel-plate electrostatic actuator with two degrees of freedom in rotation. For instance, this type of actuator is used as reflecting element (micromirror) in optical switches for optical interconnection networks [7, 8]. The mirror plate is suspended by a double-gimballed structure, which consists of two pairs of torsional springs and an outer frame see Fig. 1. The micromirror can be tilted about two axes by electrostatic actuation using four control voltages applied to the electrodes underneath the micromirror. Fig. 1 Electrostatic actuator with two degrees of freedom in rotation In this case, a synergistic integration of mechanics, electrostatics (actuation mechanism) and control theory requires knowledge from all these engineering fields. The aim is to design the 17
Outputs Inputs Computation of electrostatic field Solid mechanics Gas dynamics / Squeeze film damping effect actuator which can be rotated to arbitrary stable position as fast as possible. The design restrictions are: 1) the diameter of the actuator (diameter of micromirror), which has to be large enough to reflect required amount of incoming optical signal, 2) the total diameter of the actuator, 3) flatness of the micromirror surface, 4) the required maximum tilting angle, and 5) the highest actuation voltage level. In the past, this issue was studied and various designs emerged [11-15]. Nevertheless, as we show in Section 5, existing solutions [16-21] do not consider adequately the side effects of two-way interaction between actuation electrodes and micromirror itself. This problem arises only when the controllability of the designed actuator is studied. In fact in terms of control, the actuator represents a coupled nonlinear multi-dimensional system. The input parameters are actuation voltages applied to the electrodes underneath the mirror, the output parameters are tilting angles of the micromirror (and translation towards the electrodes) see Fig. 2. Each electrode affects the rotation of the mirror about both axes. Applied voltage on electrodes: V A Electrostati c forces Micromirror velocity V B V C Micromirror position Micromirror position V D x y d z Position sensing circuits Gas pressure on the surface Fig. 2 Multiphysics model of the actuator When a voltage between electrodes and the micromirror is applied the electrostatic field is created. As a result, the electrostatic force acts on the mechanical structure and the micromirror is attracted towards electrodes. As the micromirror moves, the geometry is changed and therefore the electrostatic field and acting electrostatic force are changed as well even if still the same driving voltage is applied. Moreover, the motion of the micromirror, i.e. the geometry change generates the movement of the fluid what backwards affects the motion of the micromirror (pressure on the micromirror surface). We have to note, that all mentioned interactions appear simultaneously. a. CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL The change of the capacitance between micromirror and sensing electrodes due to the change of the micromirror position can be converted to the sensing voltage and used as a feedback to the control circuits of the actuator see Fig.3. The control circuits consequently realize the correction of the driving voltage with the aim to set the micromirror in the required position as fast as possible. 18
Fig. 3 Basic closed-loop control scheme b. MODEL OF THE ACTUATOR The multiphysics model of actuator involves three physical areas the electrostatics, solid mechanics, and gas dynamics see Fig. 2. For simplicity and practical considerations, we describe the model after applying finite element method (FEM) to governing equations as follows. Electrostatics: Electrostatic field within any media characterized by the permitivity is determined by Poisson's equation [22]. This equation after spatial discretization by FEM can be rewritten into the matrix form: K ψ ~ f e, (1) T K N, e N q e d where N d 19 f, (2) in which the N is the basis function vector, and the symbol ~ (tilde) above is used to indicate the fact that the values of the electric potential are restricted into the nodal points of the finite element mesh and thus the electric potential is approximated by N ψ ~, and q e is charge density. Solid mechanics: The linear elasticity of isotropic solids is convenient to express in the displacement formulation of Navier s equation. This equation after spatial discretization can be rewritten in the matrix form [22]: ~ M u K u~, (3) u T where Mu M N, u Nud T T T K u B E B d, f M N d d u f M V, N f u M, B (4) with u being the displacement vector, which describe the deformation state of a body as a mapping of the the initial configuration into the deformed one; f M,V being volume forces, f M,B being surface forces on the boundary ; M is the mass density of the material; E is the elasticity matrix describing stress strain relation for isotropic materials; matrix B is defined by B = N u where is differential operator given by: u f M x 0 0 0 z y β 0 y 0 z 0 x. (5) z y x 0 0 0 The Rayleigh damping model, in which the damping matrix C u is computed via a linear combination of the mass matrix M u and stiffness matrix K u (i.e. C u = M M u + K K u ), can T
include the damping effects in the solid mechanics part of the model. Thus, the equation (3) can be rewritten in the form: ~ ~ M u C u K u~ f. (6) u u u M Gas dynamics: The pressure distribution over the micromirror surface can be modeled by the squeeze film damping effect [23-25] as a result of motion of the gas in the gap between movable micromirror and electrodes. The perturbation pressure p F over the micromirror surface can be estimated by linearized Reynolds equation. Its semidiscrete Galerkin formulation can be written in matrix form as follows where M T paqch M G N N d, K G N 12 G p ~ K p~ f (7) F G T F 2 G h N T 1 d, f G p A N h d (8) h in which p F is the gas pressure vector; p A is the ambient pressure, h is the actual gas gap thickness (distance between surface element ds and the electrodes see Fig.1), denotes the fluid viscosity at normal conditions. The term Q ch is the relative flow rate function that accounts for the rarefied gas effects. c. MODEL OF THE CONTROL CIRCUITS The actuator uses common electrodes to tilt the micromirror about both axes. The controllable quantity is the electric voltage on electrodes V A, V B, V C, V D (see Fig.1 and Fig.2). Therefore, it is not possible to design and optimize two controllers for rotation about x and y axis independently, rather both rotations have to be considered. We will use the control scheme according to Fig. 3. The control unit is designed according to [26] as a proportionalintegral (PI) controller: 1 K s K p 1, (9) Ti s where K p and T i are parameters of the controller to be tuned. These parameters are determined from the step response of the actuator combined with correction unit. The correction unit shapes driving voltages with the aim to eliminate oscillations of the actuator. 3. SIMULATION RESULTS The input to the controller are the desired angles for both the x and y axis. Let's consider the micromirror diameter of 600 µm, micromirror thickness of 4 µm, the mirror electrodes distance of 130 µm, the frame diameter of 668 µm, and finally x = 2, y = 1 as desired angles (this leads to activation of voltages of V A and V B ). The resulting voltages applied on the cross-connect electrodes (after control unit and correction unit) are shown in following Fig. 4. The parameters of the correction unit were selected by the genetic algorithm with the aim to set the micromirror in 2 (signal A), 4 (signal B), and 10 (signal C) milliseconds. The correction unit (see Fig. 3) is composed from second-order low-pass Bessel's filter and first-order high-pass Butterworth's filter. 20
Fig.4 Three different applied signals corresponding to the change of applied voltage from 0 V to 87.7 V on electrode A, and from 0 V to 52.3 V on electrode B The response of the mirror in closed loop control is shown in Fig. 5. The time-avoided response in rotation about both axes is shown in Fig. 6. Fig.5 The closed-loop response of the micromirror Fig. 6 Time-avoided closed-loop response of the micromirror during 12 ms of tilting From the response of the mirror we can observe that the switching time of 2 ms (Signal A) was not achieved and micromirror oscillates around 7 % of its final value with decreasing tendency. The oscillations of Signal B after 4 ms are still not acceptable even they are dramatically reduced. The only Signal C meets all requirements. It would be great mistake to conclude that it is not possible to set the micromirror into the new position under 4 ms even if the same control unit is used, or to exclude current correction unit structure and to focus to other alternatives. 21
4. ACTUATOR ANALYSIS AND OPTIMIZED DESIGN In previous sections we have developed the model of the actuator and realized some simulation results. Instead of running simulations again and again and performing some adhoc optimizations, we should focus on the analysis of the important phenomena inside the actuator. The understanding of all aspect of the actuator design can lead to the synergic effects, and thus, it can improve/optimize the overall behavior of the actuator. In order to analyze the behavior of the actuator, we approximate the system as linear secondorder system based on simulation results. Let's consider the initial position and velocity to be equal to zero, step change of applied voltages from 0 V to V A =0 V, V B =0 V, V C =1 V, V D =1 V. Then, numerically computed initial torques are T x = 4.43 10 15 Nm, T y = 2.93 10 23 Nm and initial force f z =3.373 10-11 N. This leads to rotation of the mirror about x axis. If we perform a multiphysics simulation, treat the response of the mirror about the x axis as a step response of the linear system of the second order and perform system identification and normalization (to normalize transfer function to the unit electrostatic torque), then we get 6 5.00210 s 1 G x s, (10) 17 2 15 10 7.94110 s 7.40210 s 7.488210 Similarly, the step change of voltages form 0 V to V A =1 V, V B =0 V, V C =0 V, V D =1 V leads to rotation of the mirror about the y axis (T x = 1.81 10 27 Nm, T y = 4.432 10 15 Nm, f z =3.373 10-11 N). The corresponding transfer function obtained from the multiphysics simulation is 6 5.00210 s 1 G y s, (11) 17 2 15 10 5.96010 s 7.43010 s 7.488210 Now we have two different linear models (transfer functions G x (s) and G y (s)) of the crossconnect for the rotation about the x and y axis. These models approximate the system about zero initial conditions. The obtained transfer functions indicate different behavior of the micromirror in rotation about both axes and unsynchronized motion of the mirror (see angleangle diagrams in Fig. 6). The differences between desired angle and actual angle about the x and y axis (see Fig. 3) may have a different sign, and thus, the control unit possibly can realize counterproductive interventions. For instance, if x < x, desired and at the same time y > y, desired then the control unit should increase voltage on electrodes to satisfy x = x, desired, but also decrease voltage on electrodes to satisfy y = y, desired. We have to recall that each electrode affect the motion of the micromirror about both axes simultaneously. If we compare transfer functions (10) and (11) to the transfer function of the damped secondorder rotational linear mechanical system in the form: 1 Gs, (12) 2 Is Ds K 22
where I is the moment of inertia, D is damping factor and K is the spring constant of the system, we can observe that greatest diversity between those transfer functions is different moment of inertia of the actuator about x and y axis. The optimized actuator should have a synchronized motion about both axes. This can be realized by prolonging the actuator structure in one axis (increasing the moment of inertia) in order to satisfy G x (s) G y (s). In this design, the motion is synchronized and the errors (the differences between desired angle and actual angle) have the same sign. Then, if the actual angle is lower/higher as desired, the control unit increases/decreases the voltage on electrodes simultaneously. This allows to simplify the control circuit and/or to reduce the switching time of the actuator. It should be noted that the presented models in the form of transfer functions G x (s) and G y (s) are valid only for small tilting angles. These linear models do not reflect nonlinearities in the system (i.e, frequency shift to lower frequencies when the mirror gets closer to the electrodes). Nevertheless, they allow us to get insight into electrostatic actuator behavior and to increase functionality of the system. The optimized actuator design uses elliptic micromirrors and has the same natural frequency for rotation about both axes. Now, if we run the genetic algorithm again to find the best shape for Signal A, Signal B, and Signal C, the shape of these signals differs very slightly from the previous one (Fig. 4), but the response of the actuator is significantly improved see Fig.7 and Fig.8. In this case, we can set the micromirror in approx. 2, 4, or 10 milliseconds without oscillations as was required. Fig.7 The closed-loop response of the optimized micromirror Fig. 8 Time-avoided closed-loop response of the optimized mirror during 12 ms of tilting 23
5. DISCUSSION The electrostatic actuator analyzed in this paper is one of the most successful commercialized examples of this actuator applied in optical switches [7, 8, 16-21, 27-28]. As we have seen in the end of previous section, optimized actuator has the same frequency for rotation about both axes. This corresponds to the first two natural frequencies of actuator. Nevertheless, many of the existing actuators have these frequencies unbalanced. For instance, the heavy gimbal structure used by NTT Microsystem Integration Laboratories [17, 18] significantly shifts the second natural frequency of the micromirror to lower frequencies, as it can be clearly seen in step responses about the x and y axis presented in [17]. A newly developed 512 512 MEMS switch reported in late of 2012 [27] utilizes these micromirrors. Similarly, the well known micromirror designed by Bell Labs [16, 19] (Lucent Technologies, currently Alcatel-Lucent) and used in WaveStar Lambda Router has the same drawback. Another micromirror presented in [20] has natural frequencies in rotation about the x and y axis equal to 175 Hz and 394 Hz, respectively. The single-crystal silicon micromirror developed by Intellisense uses a heavy gimbal structure as well. It can be clearly seen from the dynamic response of the mirror presented in [21] that natural frequencies in rotation about the x and y axis are not matched. More preciselly, the first two modes are placed at 75 Hz and 187.5 Hz [21]. On the other hand, Glimmerglass developed a micromirror which uses a dramaticaly reduced gimbal structure [28] by comparing other solutions, and thus we can suppose that the natural frequencies will be similar (or equal). It is not clear whether they are using an elliptic micromirror (instedad of circular) to equalize the moment of inertia about both axes, or different serpentine springs (with different spring constants) resulting in the same natural frequencies. It should be noted that some designs use elliptic micromirros to improve the optical properties of the photonic switch (due to mutual position of micromirror arrays and fiber arrays the elliptical micromirror appears to be circular to the light coming from the fiber array). For instance, Intellisense uses an elliptical micromirror [21], but in this case, the micromirror is prolonged in the way that natural frequencies are even more disbalanced. Our optimized design improves dynamic characteristics of the actuator regardless the control strategy. In this manner, the negative effects of cross-axis coupling are suppressed for both open-loop and closed-loop control [29]. The cross-axis coupling is an additional effect of the two-way interaction between the mechanical structure of the actuator and generated electrostatic field. Therefore, it can be studied only when multiphysics analysis is used. 6. CONLUSION The mechatronic approach including system description, simulation, analysis and optimization is presented in this paper. A nonlinear distributed multiphysics model considering the structure-electrostatic coupling effect is illustrated. The model involves the most important physical phenomena and can be used as one of the instruments for further analysis of the system. The case of parallel-plate electrostatic actuator with two degrees of freedom in rotation is used to demonstrate the need for systematic design, which takes into account interdisciplinary nature of such systems. The presented simulation studies compare 24
the behavior of non-optimized and optimized actuator under closed-loop control. For instance, we were not able to switch non-optimized actuator into new position within 4 ms, but after the optimization, the switching time approx. 2.3 ms was achieved. As we have shown in this paper, many of developed electrostatic actuators have not their dynamic chatacteristics properly optimized leading to poor dynamic behavior. This clearly demonstrates that current methodology for the design of complex mechatronics systems fully do not respect the fact that individual subsystems interact with each other. Such systems have to be developed with considerations of all subsystems simultaneously. REFERENCES [1] B. Piriyanont and S. O. R. Moheimani, 'Design, modeling, and characterization of a MEMS microgripper with an integrated electrothermal force sensor,' 2013 IEEE/ASME International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics, Wollongong, NSW, 2013, pp. 348-353. [2] A. Verger, A. Pothier, C. Guines, P. Blondy, O. Vendier and F. Courtade, 'Nanogap MEMS micro-relay with 70 ns switching speed,' Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS), 2012 IEEE 25th International Conference on, Paris, 2012, pp. 717-720. [3] S. Kamisuki, M. Fujii, T. Takekoshi, C. Tezuka and M. Atobe, 'A high resolution, electrostatically-driven commercial inkjet head,' Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, 2000. MEMS 2000. The Thirteenth Annual International Conference on, Miyazaki, 2000, pp. 793-798. [4] X. Mu et al., 'MEMS Electrostatic Double T-Shaped Spring Mechanism for Circumferential Scanning,' in Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 1147-1157, Oct. 2013. [5] T. Sandner et al., 'Micro-scanning mirrors for high-power laser applications in laser surgery,' Optical MEMS and Nanophotonics (OMN), 2013 International Conference on, Kanazawa, 2013, pp. 83-84. [6] G. Katal, N. Tyagi, A. Joshi, 'Digital Light Processing and its Future Applications', International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, vol. 3, no. 4, April 2013. [7] Madamopoulos, N.; Kaman, V.; Yuan, S. et al: Applications of large-scale optical 3D-MEMS switches in fiber-based broadband-access networks. Photonic Network Communications, Feb. 2010, vol. 19, no. 1, pp 62-73. [8] Cheng-hua Tsai; Jui-che Tsai: MEMS Optical Switches and Interconnects. Displays. Advanced MEMS technologies and Displays. Vol.33, April 2015. pp.33-40. [9] A. C. Fischer et al., 'Integrating MEMS and ICs', Microsystems & Nanoengineering, May 2015, vol. 1. [10] K. Takahashi et al., 'A study on process-compatibility in CMOS-first MEMS-last integration,' 2008 IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conference, San Jose, CA, 2008, pp. 85-88. [11] Xiao, Z.; Peng, W.; Wu, X.; Farmer, K.R.: Pull-in study for round double-gimbaled electrostatic torsion actuators. Journal of micromechanics and microengineering, 2002, Vol. 12, No.1, pp. 77-81. [12] Zhang, X.M.; Chau, F.S.; Quan, C.; Lam, L.Y.; Liu, A.Q.: A study of the static characteristics of a torsional micromirror, Sensors and actuators A: Physical, 2001, Vol. 90, No.1-2, pp. 73-81. 25
[13] Zhao, P.; Chen, H.L.; Huang, J.M.; Liu, A.Q.: A study of dynamic characteristics and simulation of MEMS torsional micromirrors. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical. Vol. 120, No. 1, April 2005, pp. 199-210. [14] Zhao, Y.; Tay, F.E.H.; Zhou, G.; Chau, F.S.: A study of electrostatic spring softening for dualaxis micromirror, Optik, Vol. 117, 2006, pp. 367 372. [15] Yao, Y.; Zhang, X.; Wang, G.; Huang, L.: Efficient modeling of a biaxial micromirror with decoupled mechanism, Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, Vol. 120, No.1, April 2005, pp.7 16. [16] Aksyuk, V.A. et al.: 238x238 Surface Micromachoned Optical Crossconnect with 2dB Maximum Loss. In: Optical Fiber Communications Conference OFC 2002, 17-22 Mar 2002, pp.fb9-1 - FB9-3. [17] Yamaguchi, J. et al.: High-yield Fabrication Methods for MEMS Tilt Mirror Array for Optical Switches. NTT Technical Review, Vol. 5, No. 10 Oct. 2007. [18] Mizukami, M. et al.: 128x128 3D-MEMS optical switch module with simultaneous optical paths connection for optical cross-connect systems. Photonics in Switching, 2009. pp.1,2, 15-19 Sept. 2009. [19] Bishop, D. J. et al.: The Lucent LambdaRouter: MEMS technology of the future here today. IEEE Communication Magazine, Vol. 40, No. 3, pp. 75-79, March 2002. [20] Mehmet R. Dokmeci et al.: Two-Axis Single-Crystal Silicon Micromirror Arrays. Journal of Micromechanical Systems, VOL. 13, NO. 6, Dec. 2004, pp.1006-1017. [21] Kudrle, T.D. et al.: Single-crystal Silicon Micromirror Array with Polysilicon Flexures. Elsevier: Sensors and Actuators, Volume A119, Issue 2, 2005, pp. [22] Kaltenbacher, M.: Numerical Simulation of Mechatronic Sensors and Actuators. Berlin (Germany): Springer-Verlag, 2004. 311 pp. [23] Pan, F. Kubby, J. Peeters, E. et al.: Squeeze film damping effect on the dynamic response of a MEMS torsion mirror. Tech. Proc. of the 1998 Int. Conf. on Modeling and Simulation of Microsystems. 1998. pp.474-479. [24] L.A Rocha, L. Mol, E. Cretu and R.F. Wolffenbuttel, Experimental verification of squeezed-film damping models for MEMS, In: MME 2005 (Micromechanics Europe), Gotenburg, Sweden, 4-6 Sept. 2005, pp. 244 247. [25] Pandey, A. K. Pratap, R.: A semi-analytical model for squeeze-film damping including rarefaction in a MEMS torsion mirror with complex geometry. Journ. of Micromechanics and Microengineering. 18 (2008) 105003. IOP Publishing Ltd, 2008. 12 pp. [26] Basilio, J. C. and Matos, S. R.: Design of PI and PID Controllers With Transient Performance Specification. IEEE Transactions on education, Vol.45, No.4, November 2002, pp.364-370. [27] Kawajiri, Y. et al.: 512x512 Port 3D MEMS Optical Switch Module with Toroidal Concave Mirror. NTT Technical Review, Vol. 10 No. 11 Nov. 2012. [28] Fernandez, A. et al.: Modular MEMS design and fabrication for an 80x80 transparent optical cross-connect switch. In: Proceedings of SPIE. Optomechatronic Micro/Nano Components, Devices, and Systems. Vol. 5604, Oct. 2004, pp.208-217. [29] I. Plander, M. Stepanovsky, Advanced Three-Dimensional MEMS Photonic Cross-Connect Switch for Nonblocking All-Optical Networks, Optical Switching and Networking, Available online 28 April 2016, ISSN 1573-4277. 26
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY IN BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 ANALYSIS AND CONTROL OF A HOVERCRAFT Bc. Baker Bawers Montaño Jacanamijoy - Ecuador Department of Applied Mechanics and Mechatronics Bratislava, Slovakia, tel.: + 421 944 921 385, e-mail: [email protected] Abstract This paper deals with the analysis and design of a digital controller for an underactuated nonholonomic system the hovercraft. The first part describes the applications and operation of the hovercraft. The second chapter outlines the description and implementation of various electronic modules for use in the corresponding RC hovercraft. The third chapter talks about driver development of Arduino-Simulink and their use. Fifth chapter focuses on 3D scanning and the CFD analysis of the hovercraft and the last chapter talks about the LQR controller design which explains nonholonomic systems, analytical and experimental identification. Keywords Measurement, 3D scanning, CFD analysis, Ansys workbench, mechatronics, hovercraft, LQR control, Arduino, Simulink, nonholonomic, Matlab. 1. INTRODUCTION Not so long ago the hovercraft was a unique vehicle, which we used to don't know how it works, its structure or form. A vehicle that we were discovering little by little, it aroused great interest in us and it gave us a broad overview of itself and its many applications. These applications are widely used such as in tourist traffic, both at sea and in the rivers. In addition, thanks to its versatility and amphibious characteristics could also be used in military and maritime transport. The hovercraft is a fascinating mechatronic system that possesses the unique ability to float above land or water even on snow. The mechanical qualities of this system represent a huge advantage for many uses and applications but also the same qualities of its operation make it a very unstable system and that is because the hovercraft is almost fully detached from the ground what reduces the friction with the contact surfaces and this causes a difficult maneuverability [1]. 27
After very thorough research about hovercrafts, how they work and how they are structured, we realized that most of the small hovercrafts have not a control system, because of that we decided to design a control system that will be tested on the model. As we will see later the hovercraft is a underactuated system also we can say that it is a nonholonomic system, which is difficult to control its position and angular velocity unless sufficient numbers of thrusters or torques are available. There are many nonlinear control techniques, such as predictive control, backstepping [2], fuzzy control [3], etc. The nonlinear control techniques require special and rather involved knowledge. However, we will board the challenging problem to apply Linear- Quadratic - regulator (LQR) to a nonlinear system with such dynamic and mechanical properties. Fig. 1 Hovercraft Zubr. [4] 2. APPLICATIONS AND OPERATION OF THE HOVERCRAFT The hovercraft is a vehicle that keeps a pressurization air layer, through which it runs on land and water and sometimes on snow. Around the hovercraft there is a flexible skirt, which functions thanks to a special fan that pushes the air down and the result is the motion of the ship on the ground or on the surface. Forward motion and braking are provided by propellers mounted in the rear of the hovercraft. The hovercraft moves through the air distribution through small holes of the elastic skirt. In aerodynamics there is a principle that explains how the hovercraft works and this is so-called Ground effect [5]. There are many different types of air-cushion vehicles [6], starting from that the cushion vehicles are used for different purposes. Some of them reach speeds of 346 km / h [7]; other hovercrafts are able to overcome obstacles up to two meters. For more benefits of the hovercraft we consider it like a secure and stable platform that cause minimal interference to the environment. So hovercraft can move from the water to the ground and vice versa without 28
any complications. Therefore, the hovercraft is not considered like a terrain or water vehicle, so then we can meet the term 'amphibious vehicles. ' a. The operating principle of the hovercraft The hovercraft is an amphibious vehicle in which the essential part is the 'cushion' filled with air. Although it can be viewed as a special type of vehicle is essentially a simple machine. To understand how hovercraft works, it should be noted that its dynamics are more associated with aircraft than ships and automobiles. The diagram, which allows us to understand the functioning of modern hovercrafts, is shown in fig. 2. Fig. 2 Basic principles of the hovercraft The graph above explains The Momentum Curtain effect, which was discovered by Christopher Cockerell. This has caused a revolution in the theory of hovercraft. Lifting fan is not blowing directly under the hovercraft, but the air is blown into the collection chamber and directed the edges inward. This creates a high velocity air curtain, reducing the amount of escaped air and at the same time increasing the pressure of the hovercraft. As a result, it is possible to achieve a greater height and stability. The hovercraft floats on a cushion filled with air, which was created by the fan under the ship and thus slightly the hovercraft floats, levitates. Dimensions of such a hovering range are between 2.7 mm to 152 mm depending on the size of the ship. The amount of weight that can lift the hovercraft is equal to the pressure of the air cushion and multiplied by the contact area of hovercraft. In order for the ship to operate effectively, it is essential to prevent the leaking 29
of air from the air cushion, and therefore, the air is restrained with rubber sheathing. This equipment is located at the bottom with small holes where the air is discharged uniformly from the flexible skirt, and with this the air layer is formed which facilitates the loss of friction with the ground. This enormously reduces the pressure of the hovercraft with ground (up to 30 times less), contributing to the hovercraft an easy motion with a minimum use of energy. This is known as a ground effect [8]. When the hovercraft is slipping, it must create a lifting force that creates forward motion. The buoyant force can be induced through another fan that creates inflatable cushions. On the other hand, the buoyant force can be induced in small hovercraft through a small fan that controls a small amount of air flow and this air flow produces an air cushion. In most parts of the air flow, it produces a propulsion force. Fig. 3 Principal mode of air circulation in a hovercraft 3. DESCRIPTION OF ELECTRONIC MODULES As core of mechatronic system (hovercraft) we have three important components: Arduino Mega board (ATmega2560), MPU6050 gyroscope and Adafruit Motor Shield. For a proper installation and programming of electronic components are used more electronic devices to facilitate the activation of the lifting motor and thrusters. Another very important part was the realization of the power supply system. a. Arduino Mega The Mega 2560 is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega2560. It has 54 digital input/output pins (of which 15 can be used as PWM outputs), 16 analog inputs, 4 UARTs (hardware serial ports), a 16 MHz crystal oscillator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or 30
battery to get started. The Mega 2560 board is compatible with most shields designed for the Uno and the former boards Duemilanove or Diecimila [9]. Fig. 4 Arduino Mega b. Adafruit Motor Shield The original Adafruit Motor shield kit is a kit which provides an easiest way to drive DC and Stepper motors. This shield will make quick work of robotics project; it keeps the ability to drive up to 4 DC motors or 2 stepper motors [10]. c. IMU sensor- MPU6050 Fig.5 Assembling of the motor shield driver. 31
MPU6050 is the first 6-axis integrated device in the world to tracking motion, it combines 3-axis gyroscope, three-axis accelerometer and Digital Motion Processor (DMP), all in a small 4x4x0.9mm package. For the data transmission it uses the standard I2C bus. With the I2C bus can accept input from an external 3-axis compass and provide a complete 9-axis MotionFusion output [11]. There are a number of different boards that include MPU6050 chip. We have GY-521, which in this case measured the speed, direction and force of gravity of the hovercraft. MPU6050 is a 6DOF (degrees of freedom) or 6-axis IMU sensor, which means it gives six values as output [12]: Acceleration components: ax, ay, az Angular velocity components: wx, wy, wz Fig.6 IMU/MPU6050 sensor connection d. Power supply Because the Arduino is operated at a voltage of 5 volts, we had to use a linear voltage regulator (LM7805) for reducing the voltage to 5 volts. Also in the case of the motor shield driver that operates at a maximum voltage of 12V, we had to reduce voltage to 10.3V using a variable voltage regulator LM317T. The fig. 7 shows the circuit of the power supply designed in proteus. Since the regulator LM317T is a variable voltage regulator, it was necessary to make certain calculations to achieve the output voltage. We knew several parameters for these calculations, such as input voltage, the desired output voltage and resistance R2 (4.7KΩ). Our task was therefore to calculate the next resistance R1. After few adjustments:. / (1) (2) 32
Fig. 7. a) Schematic circuit b) PCB, c) 3D visualization of the power supply. 4. DESIGN OF THE ARDUINO DRIVERS FOR MATLAB-SIMULINK Generally, Simulink considers a driver like a block that takes an input signal and uses it to calculate an activity / operation, where the input and the operation or both are executed on some external hardware. For example, the reading of data of an IMU sensor, the writing on the LED displays, the reading of an encoder, etc. To create a driver is used a Simulink block called 'S-Function Builder', located in the library «User-Defined Functions» which can generate S-functions (specific file C 'wrapper' has only the header information and two functions), no C file is needed to be created which uses an explicit way of its API. The file 'wrapper' is then used to create an EXE. file for simulation or to be executed on the Arduino board. 33
5. 3D SCANNING AND CFD ANALYSIS OF THE HOVERCRAFT. The ATOS series of industrial optical 3D scanners (fig. 8) provide accurate scans with detailed resolution at high speeds. ATOS delivers three-dimensional measurement data and analysis for industrial components such as slip metal parts, tools and dies, turbine blades, prototypes, injection molded parts, castings, and more. Instead of measuring single points or with a laser, ATOS captures an object's full surface geometry and primitives precisely in a dense point cloud or polygon mesh [13]. Fig.8 scanner ATOS Compact ATOS Software is a basis of the knowledge - that leads the operator through the complete scanning procedure and provides support for setting up new measuring tasks using controlled modeling project. Due to we did not have a license for Atos, we downloaded the software GOM Inspect, which is a free browser results, mesh processing and control software for dimensional analysis of ATOS data or 3D point cloud. Combining ATOS and GOM Inspect the 3D cloud of points was processed, we have also edited and post-processed data, as it is shown in the fig. 9. After the 3D scanning it was necessary to continue with the processing of data cloud in Catia V5 (fig. 10). We were using the module Shape and the combination of the sub-modules such as: Digitized Shape Editor, Quick Surface Reconstruction, Generative Shape Design and FreeStyle. As result we get the figure below, where only was reconstructed the hull of the hovercraft. 34
Fig. 9 3D Scanned hovercraft Fig.10 Reconstructed 3D Model The computational fluid dynamics or the aerodynamics engineering for the safety and fuel efficiency for the performance and low power, nowadays different kinds of vehicles, craft and planes are requiring low consumption of energy and high performance, but particularly in my case we didn't consider these aspects, we focused just on the overflowing of the air across our geometry. This analysis in Ansys helps us to see how the air incurs in our geometry regarding to the trajectory of the hovercraft. 35
Fig.11 Geometry and meshing of the hovercraft's hull Fig 12 Overflowing on the hull of the hovercraft 6. DESIGN OF THE LINEAR QUADRATIC REGULATOR (LQR) Control problems of underactuated marine systems motivate the development of new control design methodology. Control design of tracking, point stabilization, path following for marine vehicles, or Dynamic Positioning for the hovercraft system is example of these types of problems. 36
Furthermore, there are a lot of marine vehicles kinds that are underactuated, i.e., systems with a smaller number of control inputs than the number of independent generalized coordinates [14]. One of the difficulties encountered in the stabilization and tracking of underactuated vehicles is that classical nonlinear techniques in nonlinear control theory like feedback linearization are not applicable because these systems are not fully feedback linearizable and exhibit nonholonomic constraints, because of that we will trying to apply the LQR. It should be highlighted that the hovercraft exhibits a drift vector field that is not in the span of the input vector fields and because of this, input transformations are not used to bring them to driftless form, also we need to know that the hovercraft is equipped with two propellers that provide the thrust to move the vehicle forward (and backward) and to make it turn. The main difference with respect to a two-wheel mobile robot is that a hovercraft can move freely sideways even though this degree of freedom is not actuated [15]. The problem of point stabilization of hovercrafts that exhibit nonholonomic restrictions is so challenging, because as Brocket et al. (1983) [16] showed, there is no smooth (or even continuous) constant state-feedback control law that stabilizes the system in a desired point in the state space. The main problem for stabilization of underactuated hovercrafts is that any linearization of the system around an equilibrium point generates an uncontrollable system [17]. This is due to the fact that there are no forces that allow controlling the drift velocity. This problem is related in Fantoni et al. (2000) [18] that show that the linear system is only controllable for a non-zero angular velocity. They also propose a controller that use yaw angle velocity as a virtual input to obtain a discontinuous control law for stabilization. In the laboratory, the control algorithm for tracking and point stabilization are analyzed using a radio control hovercraft. The experimental validation with the radio controlled hovercraft, simulations and analysis are carried out using Matlab/Simulink (Arduino support package) and Ansys with the goal of testing the functional hovercraft and the LQR. a. Hovercraft model The model system is a radio control hovercraft equipped with two longitudinal thrusters to control speed and turning as shown in Figure 13. The impulse of both motors is asymmetric and is greater when the hovercraft moves forwards than backwards. Figure 14 shows a schematic model: X and Y are the fixed inertial reference system axes, XB and YB the body reference system axes, and the surge and sway velocities, θ is the orientation angle and Ψ the drift angle [19]. The hovercraft has three degrees of freedom, two associated with the movement in the plane of its center of masses (x, y), and one more associated to its orientation θ. 37
Fig 13 R.C. hovercraft and variables are the forces of the thrusters and r is the distance between the center of the fan and the symmetry axis that cuts to the center of mass (x, y). The vehicle is underactuated because it has more degrees of freedom than control actions. This means that is not possible to control the surge velocity because of the impellers configuration. Fig 14 Schematic model [17] The dynamic equations are obtained in the fixed inertial reference system by direct application of Newton s laws. ( ) ( ) ( ) 38
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Where m is the mass of the vehicle, J the moment of inertia, and the coefficients of viscous and rotational friction respectively, are the forces of thrusters and r is the radius from the axis of symmetry to the axis of the thruster. The system can be defined by the state vector [x, y, vx, vy, θ, w]. The digital controller will be dealing with the problem of centering by adjusting the yaw velocity of the R.C hovercraft, also it is necessary to highlight that the hovercraft is subjected to disturbances affecting its three degrees of freedom (such as those caused by the headwind and turbulence). We will expect that the controller will automatically adjust the hovercraft's heading (yaw), so to keep the system at a straight line. In the present study, we extended the hovercraft s dynamic model by carrying out system identification in yaw on the R.C hovercraft and by incorporating an inertial inner loop based on an IMU-Mpu6050 gyroscope to improve the natural dynamics of the hovercraft. b. State Space Modeling The state-space model is used to obtain the mathematical model of the physical model. State description helps us to understand the system inputs and outputs by using state variables and differential equations of the first order. They are combined in a matrix of first order differential equation. If θ = 0 from the equation (5) we get: ( ) (6) The approximation in the time domain: ( ) ( ) ( ), ( )- (7) ( ) ( ) ( ) (8) Then, when the state variables are: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 39
The state space will be: [ ( ) ( ) ] [ ( ) ( ) ] ( ) ( ) ( ), ( )- ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 1 [ ] [ ] 0 1 0 1 [ ], ( )- ( ) ( ), -, -, -, - 0 1, -, ( )- ( ) 0 1, * +, -, - Where: X (.) - The state vector Y (.) - Output vector U (.) - Input vector A (.) - The state matrix B (.) - Input matrix C (.) - Output matrix D (.) - Direct transfer matrix 40
From the main problem, we derive the open loop s transfer function of hovercraft, as shown below. ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 1 ( ) This applies only for small values of the angle θ. Continuing the analysis, we start looking at the response of the open loop system of the hovercraft. Fig.15 Open loop impulse response Fig 16. Open loop step response The results from the fig.15 and fig.16 confirm our expectations, the system response to an impulse and step input is unstable, there is a very large deviation from the symmetry axis, so that is needed to be designed a type of control to improve system responsiveness. This problem can be solved by using a full-state feedback. Schemes of this type of control system 41
is shown below (fig.17) where K is a gain matrix of control. Note that here we feedback all the states, rather than using the output from the system for feedback. Fig. 17 Full- state feedback Before calculating the matrix K, we need to test if our system is controllable, for that we calculate the matrix of controllability using the equation (12), after we can prove that our system is controllable and thus we should be able to design a controller that achieves the given requirements., - ( ) Specifically, we will use the Linear Quadratic Regulation method for determining our state-feedback control gain matrix K. Essentially, the LQR method allows for the control of the output. In this case, it is pretty easy to do. Our system has been considered as a SISO system, where u is the input and is the output. We can determine the gain matrix K for our control signal. minimizing the cost function (13) ( ) (14) where Q is a positive semidefinite Hermitian matrix and R is a positive definite Hermitian matrix [20]. The cost function (14) can be obtained by the equation (15) algebraically [21]. where P is a positive definite Hermitian matrix. And where the feedback gain K is given by: The controller can be tuned by changing the nonzero elements in the Q matrix to achieve a desirable response. The input weighting R will remain at 1. Ultimately what matters is the (15) (16) 42
relative value of Q and R, not their absolute values. In the fig 18 is shown how the matrix Q improved the response (in discrete time) of our system. Fig. 18 LQR-step response 7. CONCLUSION Our present result is constituted by several sections because one of the goals of this project was demonstrate the meaning of the mechatronics, we were working in electronics design, 3D design and 3D analysis also applying knowledge of the FEM in the aerodynamics analysis, settings in software and hardware, implementation of the control theory and the basics of the automation. The goals of the creation and settings of the electronics modules were successfully achieved, although the power supply is not so efficient because the batteries do not provide the enough amount of energy for the hovercraft. The 3d scanning it is a marvelous technology, using the Atos compact scan we obtained a very good cloud of data of our model with high accuracy which after some adjustments we were able to export it to Catia for the reconstruction of the hovercraft's hull. Finishing the model in Catia we continued the aerodynamics analysis in Ansys where the results were pretty good with no turbulence or defects of our geometry. In the last part of this work we got inconclusive results, on account of this project is still ongoing. The theoretical analysis showed us that we will need to find out how integrate the gyro rate, the groundspeed Vx, Vy and the differential thrust which determines the hovercraft's yaw velocity. 43
REFERENCES [1] Sanders, R.M.W., Control of a Model Sized Hovercraft, 2003, The University of New South Wales: Aydney, Australia. [2] R. Sepulchre, M. Jankovic, and P. Kokotovic, Constructive Nonlinear Control. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1997. [3] M. Sugeno, Fuzzy Control. Tokyo: Nikkan Kogyo Shimbun, 1988. [4] Hovercraft zurb http://www.debutart.com/illustration/alex-pang/zubr-attack-hovercraft#/illustration-portfolio Accessed 5.13.2016 4:42 pm. [5] Aláez, J. Embarcaciones rápidas de poco desplazamiento, Primer SimposiumPanamericano de Ingeniera naval, Guayaquil-Ecuador. Octubre 1994. [6] An Illustrated History of the Hovercraft http://io9.com/an-illustrated-history-of-the-hovercraft-998911698 Accessed 5.13.2016-6:10 pm. [7] Estrada Y Yerovi, El Siglo de los Vapores Fluviales 1840-1940,Instituto de HistoriaMarítima, Guayaquil Ecuador, 1992. [8] FitzPatrick, P, The principles of hovercraft design, Hovercraft Club of Great Britain,S.E. Branch, Abril 2003. [9] https://www.arduino.cc/en/main/arduinoboardmega2560 Accessed 5.13.2016-7:00 pm. [10] https://www.google.sk/webhp?sourceid=chrome-instant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=utf- 8#q=adafruit%20motor%20shield%20v2 Accessed 5.13.2016-7:00 pm. [11] MPU6050 Datasheet https://www.olimex.com/products/modules/sensors/mod-mpu6050/resources/rm-mpu- 60xxA_rev_4.pdf [12] Shihong Qin, Xialong Li,Applied, Mechanics, Mechatronics and Intelligent Systems- Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference (ammis2015) 44
[13] 3D Scanners http://www.gom.com/metrology-systems/3d-scanner.html Accessed 10.04.2016-10:00 pm. [14] J. Aranda,P Gonzales de Santos,J.M. de la Cruz, Robotics and Automation in the Maritime Industries, PMG, Madrid, Spain, 2006, ISBN-13: 978-84-611-3915-6, ISBN-10: 84-611-3915-1, pp. 15-52 [15] Fossen T. I.. 1994. Guidance and Control of Ocean Vehicles. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. [16] Brockett R.W., Millman and Sussman H. J. 1983. Asymptotic stability and feedback stabilization. Diferencial Geometric Control Theory. Eds, Boston, pp 181-191. [17] Aranda J., Chaos D., Dormido-Canto S., R.Muñoz, Díaz J.M. 2006b. A Control for tracking and stabilization of an underactuated non-linear RC hovercraft. In Manoeuvring and Control of Marine Craft MCMC 2006. Lisbon. [18] Fantoni I., Lozano R., Mazenc F., and Pettersen K.Y. 2000. Stabilization of a nonlinear underactuated hovercraft. Int J. of Robust and Nonlinear Control, 10:645-654. [19] Muñoz-Mansilla R., Aranda J., Díaz J.M., Dormido-Canto S. and Chãos D. 2006. Robust control design by QFT methodology for a dynamic positioning problem of a moored floating platform. In Proc. of 7th IFAC Conf. on Manoeuvring and Control of Marine Crafts (MCM 06), Lisboa, Portugal, September 2006. [20] J. Moore, and B. Anderson, Optimal Control: Linear quadratic methods, Prentice Hall, 1989. [21] K. Astrom, and B. Wittenmark, Computer controlled systems: Theory and Design, Prentice Hall, 2002. 45
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 GOECO PROJECT INTEGRATED ENERGY CONCEPTS Ing. Roman Caban Institute of Power and Applied Electrical Engineering, SUT- Bratislava, Slovakia tel.: + 421 944 348 175, e-mail: [email protected] doc. Ing. Ján Vlnka, PhD. Institute of automation, measurement and applied informatics, SUT- Bratislava, Slovakia tel.: + 421 2 572 964 40, e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Business parks (or business district areas) offer various opportunities and synergies for the rational use of energy and the expansion of efficient energy generation technologies (RES, CHP). Especially SMEs in such parks often face similar problems in implementing cross-sectional (core) technologies for the efficient and sustainable generation and use of energy. Cooperation among respective companies is a key to tapping existing innovation potentials in these technologies. Therefore, the main target of goeco was to apply a new co-operative approach to reducing energy consumption and CO2-emissions in existing business parks. Keywords Integrated Energy Concept (IEC), business parks, SMEs, energy efficiency, energy generation technologies (RES, CHP), and synergies. 1 INTRODUCTION An Integrated Energy Concept (IEC) is a strategy that has been developed in a standardized approach among involved consortium partners, aiming for the following objectives: Analysis of energy supply and demand structure of the respective business park. Identification of energy saving potentials and appropriate core technologies. Implementation of feasibility studies on specific core technologies that should be implemented by single enterprises or in a cooperative approach among several SMEs in the business park. Development of a working plan for the implementation stage. This document summarizes the working results of the Energy centre Bratislava and its national partner, POĽANA industrial park (brown field) located in the town of Lučenec. 46
Legend: PEA Preliminary energy audit, SWOT SWOT analysis, FS Feasibility study. Fig. 1 Timeline of the goeco project in Slovakia 2 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE INDUSTRIAL PARK The Poľana Industrial Park is located to the northeast of Lučenec. It is bounded by the railway, Tovarenská Street and in the south by Gemerská Road. Approximately 300 employees work in the POĽANA IP in various SMEs from the field of textile manufacturing, textile wholesale, mechanical engineering, soft furniture parts manufacturing, wood production, production of cardboard boxes and various other small businesses, warehouses and services. Fig. 2 Map localization of Poľana IP 47
3 ANALYSIS OF THE STATUS QUO Buildings of Poľana IP The park s buildings are used for manufacturing and administrative purposes and wholesale and retail services. Renovation of buildings and production halls has been partially imlemented and a majority of buildings does not meet minimum energy performance requirements. LC WOOD Fig. 3 Panorama of Poľana IP with logos of the involved SMEs Energy Consumption in Poľana IP Four energy sources (electricity, natural gas, biomass and heating oil) are used at present in the Poľana IP. From renewable energy sources (RES) only biomass is currently being used. Energy engineering networks transport electricity and natural gas for almost the whole park. From the energy point of view, there is heat for heating of buildings and hot water processing, process steam and compressed air generated in the industrial park. The energy generation runs individually. There is significant potential for increasing energy efficiency. A water gate suitable for the installation of a small water turbine has been built in the area. Fig. 4 Former heating plant and the water gate suitable for installation of a small water turbine In Poľana IP there were identified these energy consumptions for 2013. The year 2013 was set as a baseline. 48
NG 47% Final energy mix RES 2% Oil 0% EE 51% 41% Share of energy use categories 8% 46% EE NG RES Oil 3% 1% 1% Lighting Heating Cooling Ventilation Compressed air Process Fig. 5 Final energy mix and energy consumption divided into categories of energy use in Poľana IP Final energy consumption breaks down into primary energy sources for generating heat used in industrial buildings is listed in the following chart. RES 3,4% Oil 0,4% EE 0,4% NG 95,9% EE NG RES Oil Fig. 6 Final energy consumption of decentralized heating system in Poľana IP The overall thermal efficiency of generated heat is 86 % for Poľana IP as the whole. The indicator is calculated on the basis of the weighted average (As the variables were used: for value thermal efficiency of certain boiler systems and for weight installed power of certain boiler systems). 4 IDENTIFICATION OF ENERGY SAVING POTENTIAL During identifying energy saving potential in companies from Poľana IP, altogether 41 innovative measures have been identified via preliminary energy audits (PEA). For 12 of them the feasibility studies (FS) have been elaborated, with estimated energy savings and evaluated financial indicators. Feasibility studies were elaborated for 5 core technologies in different companies, including technologies: building envelope, photovoltaic plant, heating, steam generation. 59% Consumption Savings 34% New energy consumption Building envelope Photovoltaics Steam generator Heating 3% 1% 0% 3% Energy management 49
[MWh] Fig. 7 Saving potential from results of elaborated feasibility studies During goeco project activities ECB identified altogether 41 innovative measures. For 12 of them the feasibility studies were elaborated. The overall amount of energy savings from results of elaborated feasibility studies represented 40 % in comparison to the base line energy consumption of the Industrial Park. 5 INTEGRATED ENERGY CONCEPT Energy efficiency measures described in the feasibility studies were incorporated into the Integrated energy concept as major document of goeco project for Poľana IP. ECB elaborated the Integrated Energy Concept with two scenarios (BAU and GREEN) plus the Cooperative scenario with some possible cooperation among SMEs. Within Business as usual (BAU) scenario it is assumed that all future activities will be performed without the described measures from Feasibility studies. Development dynamics for each company is not stated there. The implementation phase from GREEN scenario is divided into two periods: The first one has a duration up to the end of the project and it brings an implementation of 4 measures. The second one is for next 5 years up to the 2020 year and it solves other 9 measures. In general, these measures need changes in the business environment for successful implementation (i.e. legislative changes, or end of lifetime of current technology). The cooperative scenario is about benefits from common approach from joint procurement of energy as commodity and photovoltaic plants. 3 500 3 000 2 500 2 000 1 500 1 000 500 0 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Lighting Heating Cooling Ventilation Compressed air Process Fig. 8 Assumed future energy consumption for BAU scenario 50
[MWh] [MWh] 3 500 3 000 2 500 2 000 1 500 1 000 500 0 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Lighting Heating Cooling Ventilation Compressed air Process Fig. 9 Assumed future energy consumption for GREEN scenario 3 500 3 000 2 500 2 000 1 500 1 000 500 0 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 BAU GREEN Fig. 10 Comparison of estimated future energy consumption in BAU and GREEN scenario 6 CONCLUSION According to our best understanding, it is important to consider the industrial areas as a living organism and many times it is not possible to prescribe precise scenarios of development for them in such turbulent globalized business environment. During the implementation process, new changes have occurred in comparison with the Integrated energy concept. The first energy efficiency measure has been installed so far from the four planned for the period to 2015. The next three measures which have not been implemented so far were influenced by unexpected facts. The project goeco was co-funded by the European programme Intelligent Energy Europe and by national partner Energy centre Bratislava. Project had the goal to develop and to implement energy concepts and action plans in selected business parks in eight European countries. Please visit our national subsite www.go-eco.info/sk for more information. 51
Fig. 11 Logo of the European programme Intelligent Energy Europe, logo of ECB and logo of the goeco project Expert proofreading of the article: Eng. Jiří Balajka, DrSc. 52
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 CORNERING CONTROL SYSTEM FOR SMALL UGV Viktor Ferencey*, Martin Bugár* * Institute of Automotive Mechatronics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Ilkovičova 3, 812 19 Bratislava, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Abstract This work deals with the design of turning a small unmanned vehicle of type UGV. In this work balance of forces and torques acting on the vehicle was analyzed. Also lateral and longitudinal stability of vehicle was analyzed. The major part of this work deals with the analysis of kinematics of turning 6x6 vehicles UGV and design of simulation model of turning a small vehicle of type UGV in the program called MSC.ADAMS. Based on this model, an algorithm of control in Matlab was created on which a simulation was done. At the end, the results of simulations were presented. Keywords cornering, control, system, UGV, simulation, model, measurement, mechatronics, program control, data s 3. INTRODUCTION To increase the effectiveness in field of operations, an Unmanned Ground Vehicle (UGV) must maximize its agility, defined here as the ability to quickly change directions without a significant loss in speed. This will allow the UGV to reduce its exposure to dangerous situations by traveling at higher speeds. The UGV will be better equipped to actively avoid hazards detected at close range and maneuver in tight corridors and confined spaces [1]. Conversely, an agile UGV can safely recover from unwanted dynamic maneuvers that might result from improperly identified or unforeseen terrain conditions. The majority of UGVs can traverse or avoid obstacles, but most, if not all, lack agility. This is partly because a majority of the previous research concerning UGVs focuses on operation at low speeds. At higher speeds there has been some work investigating the dynamic behavior of small robots; but again, little work devoted to turning. For larger passenger vehicles, research has been performed in understanding cornering dynamics and yaw stability control in the context of maintaining stability and safety, but very little for extreme dynamic maneuvers. The structure of the platform with no moving parts allows achieving quite short response time the favorable parameter for the application in active suspension. That is why as an initial stage of 53
the presented research the investigation of the operational parameters of the muscle itself is very important. 4. BACKGROUND OF THE LONGITUDINAL AND LATERAL DYNAMICS THEORY In this section, the theoretical basis which the vehicle dynamics relating is bends into its center of gravity (COG) position. This theoretical basis is achieved by combining three physical models: mathematical model of the wheel slip angles, kinematic-dynamic model, and the vehicle dynamics equations of motion [3]. While direction changing making is, the tire generates the longitudinal and lateral forces, and both of which are dependent on local slip angle α, and longitudinal slip ratio, ζ. The longitudinal slip ratio is a function of all electric motors torques (when the wheel is driven) and braking torques. Several different models, all theoretical and empirical, were used for the calculation of wheel-tire / terrain contact forces and final for the analysis of the vehicle agility [3, 4]. For this analysis, the analytical elastic foundation wheel-tire model, which has been shown to be accurate for slip angles used are. To model force, F, acting on the road wheel is the same as [2, 3, 4]: 2 4. lw. bw. k. F F z. 1 (1.. ) 3.. Fz. Fz 3 3.. Fz 2 4. lw. bw. k 3.. F z 2 4. l. b. k w w (1) Where: μ - the traction coefficient, F z - the normal force acting on the tire, k - the lateral stiffness of the tire per unit area, b w - the width of tire, l w - related to the length of contact patch and is given by: l w = 3.F z / 8.p 0.b w, p 0 - the tire pressure, and ζ - total tire slip. When calculating lateral force only, ζ = tan(δ), where δ is the slip angle. For the combined tire force: 2 2 (2) x y Where: ζ x is the longitudinal slip ratio and ζ y is the lateral side slip angle, defined as Where ζ x is defined as follows: during accelerating: ζ y = (1 ζ x ). tan(δ). (3) rd. vx x (4) r. d 54
during braking: rd. v x v x x (5) Where: r d is dynamic radius of the wheel, ζ x is the longitudinal slip ratio, ω is angular velocity of the wheel and v x is longitudinal velocity of the center of the gravity of the UGV. 5. MODELLING OF THE CORNERING CONTROL SYSTEM OF THE UGV The proposed model will be co-simulated and performed by the simulation in MSC.ADAMS and Matlab/Simulink environments, where the programs communicating each other by using the shared inputs and outputs. After that, ADAMS simulation model based on input variables controlled is. Matlab evaluates the response of the model output by monitoring parameters. In the first step, a CAD model of the UGV created was. Model contains all the components of the propulsion system and platform systems. From mass analysis in CAD software, it was obtained the moments of inertia in each axis (fig. 6) and the mass of UGV. On the imported UGV model forces, moments, velocity and acceleration sensors were applied. Interconnection of the UGV model in Matlab/Simulink designed was (fig. 5). In the Matlab/Simulink have been developed these subsystems: - Driver control management (Fig. 1, Driver_demand). - Electric powertrain subsystem (electric motor with controller) (Fig. 1, Motors_ECUs). - Torque vectoring subsystem (Fig. 1, Torque_vectoring_controller). - Brake subsystem (Fig. 1, Driver_demand). Those subsystems were interconnected with the kinematic and dynamic model of the UGV Fig. 1 Co-simulation model of the UGV in the Matlab/Simulink software environment with 55
interconnection with kinematic-dynamic model created in the ADAMS/View software environment Where: M R1 - torque on first right wheel, M R2 - torque on second right wheel, M R3 - torque on third right wheel, M L1 - torque on first left wheel, M L2 - torque on second left wheel, M L3 - torque on third left wheel, Omega R1 - angular speed of the first right wheel, Omega R2 - angular speed of the second right wheel, Omega R3 - angular speed of the third right wheel, Omega L1 - angular speed of the first left wheel, Omega L2 - angular speed of the second left wheel, Omega L3 - angular speed of the third left wheel, Logn_acc longitudinal acceleration measure, UGV_velo- UGV velocity of the center of gravity measure, Mb- braking torque. 6. CASE STUDY AND SIMULATION RESULTS Test route was designed to simulate handling performance of the UGV. Test route is showed on the figure 2. Fig.2 Characteristics of the handling performance test track Where: t0-starting time (0s), t1- interval of the time during first part of test route (6s),t2- interval of the time during second part of test route (3s),t3 - interval of the time during third part of test route (3s), t4 - interval of the time during fourth part of test route (3s),t5 - interval of the time during fifth part of test route (5s), R1 - radius of the first curve (120m), R2 - radius of the second curve (50m), R3 - radius of the third curve (115m) The most important results that obtained during co-simulations in the handling performance were: - Center of gravity of the UGV position on the rigid surface and on the mud depending on time (Fig. 3, 5). - Characteristics of lateral acceleration of UGV s center of gravity on a rigid surface and on the mud depending on time (Fig. 4, 6). Verifying the correctness of the mathematical derivation of the control and skid-steering (turning) the UGV is: 56
- Characteristics of the wheel RPMs during the motion on rigid surface depending on time (Fig. 7). - Characteristics of the longitudinal wheel slip on rigid surface depending on time (Fig. 8) Fig. 3 Center of gravity of the UGV position on the rigid surface depending on time Fig. 4 Characteristics of lateral acceleration of UGV s center of gravity on a rigid surface depending on time Fig. 5 Center of gravity of the UGV position on the mud depending on time Fig. 6 Characteristics of lateral acceleration of UGV s center of gravity on the mud depending on time 57
Fig.7 Characteristics of the wheel RPMs during the motion on rigid surface depending on time Fig.8 Characteristics of the longitudinal wheel slip on rigid surface depending on time 7. CONCLUSION In this paper a basic mathematical model for six wheeled vehicles created is. The results displayed on the graphs, is corresponding with derived mathematical model and with the simplified conditions of the solutions. From the results of the co-simulations results a conclusions and recommendations for demonstration of the skid-steering of an Unmanned Ground Vehicle. The graphs characterizing the dependence of center of gravity displacement in lateral direction (fig. 3 and 5) and dependence lateral acceleration on time (fig. 4 and 6) are corresponding to the geometrical shape of the test section. The graphs of the wheels RPMs depend on time (Fig. 7) during a skid-steering process are confirming an acquired knowledge about the different wheels RPMs on the inner and outer side of the Unmanned Ground Vehicle. The wheels RPMs differences observed by the simulation caused by the different driving resistances on the each wheel separate where, during the curvilinear motion of the UGV. The different wheels RPMs is causing the differences of the values between the lateral slip angles of the UGV s wheels (Fig. 8). From the obtained results leads to recommendations for further research, especially on issues: - Influence of the overturning moments for handling and turning kinematics of UGV. - Influence of the contact area of the wheels on turning kinematics of UGV. - Influence of the regulation and controlling of the driving and braking moments on each wheel during the different adherence conditions on the stability and handling performance of UGV. To improve vehicle stability during the passage inequalities of the surface, need to be implemented into the model relevant and tested parameters of the suspension system and damping. This, however, requires at longer necessary, simulated computation time [6]. Future solutions require a deeper analysis of the dynamic effects on wheeled UGV skid steering. 58
ACKNOWLEDGMENT This work has been supported by grant KEGA 035 STU 4 / 2014. REFERENCES [1] Ferencey V.: Development and Utilization of Unmanned Ground Vehicles. In: Výzbroj a technika pozemných síl 2010: 16. medzinárodná vedecká konferencia. Liptovský Mikuláš, 10.-11.11.2010. Liptovský Mikuláš: Akadémia ozbrojených síl, 2010, p. 44-47. ISBN 978-80- 8040-409-3. [2] Chiang CF.: Handling characteristics of tracked vehicles on nondeformable surfaces. Master thesis, Ottawa-Carleton Institute for Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Carleton University; 1999. [3] Murakami H., Watanabe K., Kitano M.: A mathematical model for spatial motion of tracked vehicles on soft ground. J Terrramech 1992;29(1). [4] Wong JY.: Theory of ground vehicles. 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons; 2001. 59
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 APPROACH TO MODELLING OF THE ELECTRIC VEHICLE MOTION DYNAMICS Prof. Ing.Viktor Ferencey, PhD. Department of Automotive Mechatronics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology Slovak University of Technology, Bratislava, Slovak Republic, e-mail: [email protected] Ing. Juraj Madaras, PhD. Mgr. Milada Omachelová, PhD. et PhD. Department of Mathematics and Physics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Slovak University of Technology Bratislava, Slovak Republic, e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Electrification of vehicles drive affected their motion dynamics in both longitudinal and transversal directions, primarily the driving wheels slip during acceleration. The drive-wheel slippage is due to the maximum value of the electric motor driving torque during wheels acceleration. Another problem is low frequency vibration of mechanical parts of the propulsion system during step changes in electric motor torque. The paper presents an algorithm of the electric drive system interacting with the motion dynamics of an electric car. Keywords electrification; dynamics; slip; elctric motor; car, 1. INTRODUCTION To modelling of the dynamics motion of electric car in the longitudinal direction can be selected electric driving system in Fig. 1. For solving dynamic forces acting and the nonlinearities, is need to create a model with flexible shafts and with the effect of viscous damping in the gear mechanism and bearings. In Fig. 2 is shown substitute model of vehicle driving system with flexible linkages. In this model, M m is the torque on the shaft of the electric motor and M k is the torque on wheels of the electric car. Material moment of inertia of an electric motor rotor - I m, wheel of gearboxes - I p, wheel of final drives - I r and driving wheel of the vehicle - I k. The angular velocity of the rotor of the electric motor - m, p gear 60
shaft and driven wheel k. Torsion rigidity of the drive shafts - k h, k p. Viscous damping coefficients of gearbox b p and of final drive housing b r. Gear ratios of gearbox i p and final gear - i r. Fig. 1 Driving system of the electric car with tranverse powerplant. Fig. 2 Substitute model of electric vehicle driving system. 2. MODELLING AND SIMULATION PROCEDURE Flowchart for modelling and simulation of dynamic motion electric car is in Fig. 3. Modeled systems are considered as systems with lumped parameters - lumped mass systems [2]. For of simulations will be used low-frequency dynamic models. Fundamental modelling is processing of drive dynamics model from electric motor on drive wheels of electric car. Model of drive mechanism is necessary to tie with the movement dynamics model of electric car and with the tire model. Nonlinear tire model describes the interaction between the electric drive system, the vehicle wheels and the road surface. To simulate dynamic phenomena in electric drives will be processed by a complex mathematical model. This model will also include the control management of the electric traction. 61
62 Fig. 3 Modelling and simulation procedure of the electric car driving. 3. MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS MODELLING General motion equation for model of the drive system in Fig. 2, can be expressed by [5 ], [9]: M K B I (1) A diagonal matrix of the mass moments of inertia of the system elements will be: 3 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 I I I I (2) where for the individual moments of inertia as shown in Fig. 2. we can write: I I i I i I I I I r r p p m 3 2 2 2 1,., (3) After the substitution of variables out of the equation (2) into matrix (1) we get:
63 k r r p p m I i I i I I 0 0 0. 0 0 0 2 2 I (4) The resulting stiffness matrix of the power system as shown in Fig. 2 will be in the form: p r p r p r h p h p h p h h k i k i k i k i k i k i k k / 0 / /.. 0. 2 K (5) Matrix of the driving system with viscous damping as shown Fig. 2 is given by: p r p r p r h p h p h p h h b i b i b i b i b i b i b b / 0 / /.. 0. 2 B (6) Substituting nuts (2), (3) and (4) into equation (1) we get: k r T T m k p m k p m k p m M i M M M / K B I (7) From the relationship (7) which corresponding with Fig. 2, we get the motion equations of the propulsion system of electric vehicle: p p m h p p m h m v C m e m m i k i b b M sign M I..... (8) r T T k r p r p p p m p h k r p r p p p m p h p r r p p i M M i i k i i k i i b i i b i I i I / /. /... /. /... /. 2 2 (9) k r p p k r p p k k d T k i k i b M r m I / /.. (10) Transcription of motion equations to the status space we get by modifying of equations (8), (9), (10). Thus after modifying of motion equations according to [10] we can write: p m p h m m h p m p h m m h v m C m e m I i k I k I i b I b b I M sign M... (11)
64 k r r p p r p p r r p p r p p h m r r p p p h k r r p p r p p r r p p r p p h m r r p p p h p i I i I i k i I i I i k i k i I i I i k i I i I i b i I i I i b i b i I i I i b 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 /. / /. /. /.. /. / /. /. /.. (12) k k p p k r p k k p p k r p k k p I k I i k I b I i b I M / / (13) Status variables that represent the angular deflections and speeds in the propulsion system of electric car we get from substitutions: k p m p k k r p p m p p m x x x i x i x 5 4 3 2 1, /. (14) The status equations in the time domain, we obtain after modification of the equations (11), (12), (13): ) ( ) (. ) (. ) ( sign ) ( ) ( 1 4 3 3 3 t x I k t x I i b t x I b b I M t x t M t x m h m p h m h v m C e (15) Where M e - electromagnetic torque of an electric motor; M C - moment of Coulomb friction; ) )( ( /. / ) ( /.. ) ( /. / ) ( /. /. ) ( /.. ) ( 2 2 2 1 2 2 5 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 4 t t x i I i I i k t x i I i I i k t x i I i I i b t x i I i I i b i b t x i I i I i b t x r r p p r p r r p p p h r r p p r p r r p p r p p h r r p p p h (16) ) ( ) ( ) (./ ) ( ) ( 2 5 4 5 t x I k t x I b t x I i b I t M t x k p k p k r p k k (17) State space required to derive of state matrixes by [11]. The system matrix A describes of relation between system states and their derivations.
65 3 3 3 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 0... 0. 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 I b b I i b I k I i b I b I i b I i k I i k I i b I b b I k i i k p r p p r p p h r p p h p h h v h r p A (18) The matrix B describes of relationship between inputs and derivations of statuses. T I 0 0 1 0 0 1 B (19) The matrix H describes the input burden of the propulsion system: T I 3 1 0 0 0 0 H (20) For each of the variables in the matrices A, B, H, according to equation (2) applies: 2 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 2 2 1 /. /., /., r p p h p r p p h k r r p p m i k i k k r b i b i b b I I i I i I I I I (21) The notation system in the time domain can be expressed as: ) ( ) (. ) ( ) ( t t t t H.z Bu A.x x (22) Where: x(t) - vector of state variables at the time; u(t) - vector of controlled inputs at the time; z(t) - vector of the load at the time; In case the modelling in status space, the output variables x (t) are defined by the nut C. ) ( ) ( t t C.x y (23) For the angular speed of the electric motor and the driven wheels we can write: 5 4 3 2 1 5 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 x x x x x x x C (24)
The electric motor is the source of the torque in the electric propulsion system of the vehicle. Model of an electric motor describes the conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy. For the synchronous motor with permanent magnets, it is necessary to analyze the torque moment, according. The resulting electromagnetic torque of the SMPM engine at the time domain is given by: 3 Me( t) p. PM. iq ( t) (25) 2 Where: p - number of pole pairs an electric motor; Ψ PM - the value of magnetic flux; i q (t) - electric current in the time domain. The motion dynamics model of electric car describes interaction between car, tires, roadway and driving system of car. We receive non - linear state model wherein non - linearities come into being interaction between tires and roadway. The status variables are - wheel slip in the longitudinal direction, speed vehicle centre of gravity and wheel circumferential speed. The motion equations are describing of driven wheel movement and vehicle centre of gravity movement.. k k 2 d Fzp xp r 2 Mh. r.. d Fval. r v d kp (26) I I I v v v k Fzp. xp Fzz. xz Fvzd mv. g. sin v v (27) m m m m Where: F val - rolling resistance; F vzd - aerodynamic resistance; F zp, F zz - radial reactions under wheels. For time domain we can write: k k 2 d v Fzp t r 2 Mh( t). r ( ). d Fval. r v d kp( t) xp( t) (28) I I I Fzp( t) F ( t) F ( t) v ( t) ( t) zz vzd v xp xz g. sin (29) m m m v The longitudinal slip in time domain is given by [6]: v v ( t) v ( t) ( t) v k x (30) v ( t) Status variables for equation (30) : x 1 x, x2 vk, x3 v v v v (31) 66 k
This institute (31) into (26),( 27) we get the non-linear model in time domain: k k 2 d Fzp t r 2 Mh( t). r ( ). d Fval. r x t d 2( ) xp( x1) (32) I I I 1 F ( ). c. S zp t 2 ( ) ( ) 2 vzd x c x 3 t xp x1 x3 ( t) g. sin (33) m m v v x ( ) ( ) ( ) 3 t x2 t x1 t (34) x ( t) 3 Where: µ xp coefficient of sliding friction in longitudinal direction [6], [1]. Then the nonlinear status system is defined by [11]: k x ( t) y( t) g x( t), u( t), t f x( t), u( t), t (35) For motion dynamics in longitudinal direction the status vector x is given by: v T x v v (36) x k The input variables vector u can be expressed as: x T u F (37) xp F xz Vector y is the output vector in equation (35) [8]. 4. COMBINED MATHEMATICAL MODEL All figures should be placed in the text. Text into figure must be min. 9point size. For caption of the figure use 10pt, italic. Minimum resolution 300 dpi with.jpg. The basic model for the regulation of entry requirements is shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 4 Basic block diagram of dynamics sytem control. Where: p(t) - input request (speed or moment); e(t) - regulating deviation; x m (t), x p (t) - interaction variables. 67
Total simulation scheme of electric vehicle is shown in Fig. 5. The scheme includes four subsystems. The fifth subsystem is intended for measurement of output values. Fig. 5 Complex simulation model of electric vehicle. Diagram of the model for vehicle motion dynamics in the longitudinal direction.is shown in Fig. 6. The entrance to the block are the values of the longitudinal force on the wheels. The output of the simulation model is vehicle centre of gravity speed and the vertical reactions on wheels. Fig. 6 Simulation model of the vehicle centre of gravity. 68
Nonlinear simulation model of tyre/road interaction is shown in Fig. 7 Into simulation model's enters the centre of gravity speed, the angular speed of the driven wheels and vertical reaction of driven wheel.longitudinal slip of the driven wheel (λ x ) and longitudinal driving force (F x ) are nonlinear output parameters. Fig. 7 Simulation model of interactions tyres with roadway. For the calculation of longitudinal force F x was used Pacejka model 'Magic formula'. The moment M h represents the driving moment of the electric vehicle propulsion system. This torque must overcome the total moment of resistances M k. Calculation of longitudinal slip is saturated with the electric vehicle speed v v, v k,. Simulation models were designed in MATLAB/Simulink. 5. THE SIMULATION RESULTS The results of the simulations are the time dependence of analysed parameters of electric vehicle as are longitudinal motion dynamics in interacting with the movement of the vehicle. To verify the correct functioning of the total model was simulated by a simple driving cycle which is illustrated in Fig. 8.. 69
Fig. 8 Operating cycle for electric motor simulation. The time course of the electric vehicle wheels velocity is shown in Fig. 9. The simulation shows that the driven wheels work with the slip during acceleration of electric vehicle. Fig. 9 Time dependence of the driven wheels speed (v kp ), and not-driven wheel speed (v kz ). Figure 10 shows the time course of the angular speed of the electric motor shaft,the gearbox shaft and the driven vheel. On this Figure is illustrated the creation of the angular speed oscillations beginning. Fig. 10 Time dependence of the angular velocity of electric motor ( m ), gear shaft ( p ) and the driven wheel ( k ). 70
The time course of longitudinal force F xp on the driven axle wheels is shown in Fig. 11. The simulation result of the longitudinal force F xp confirms relation with the time course the torque M h of an electric propulsion system. Fig 11 Time dependence of the longitudinal forces on the driven axle (F xp ). The time course of the driven wheels slip is illustrated in Fig. 12. Simulation of the interaction between the driven wheels and the road confirmed accuracy of the time course of wheel slip x (t). Fig. 12 Time dependence of longitudinal wheel slip (λ x ) at the driven axle electric car. 6. CONCLUSION The simulation results confirmed of negative dynamic phenomena in electric vehicle propulsion systems. The speed of the driven wheels significantly increased during acceleration electric vehicle. The cause this situation is the maximum drive torque M during of electric vehicle accelerating and starting up. During the dynamic changes in the load of the vehicle have angular speed of the oscillation in the propulsion system. Regenerative braking in a limited scope does not have negative impact on the electric vehicle motion dynamics. The results of the simulations confirm the suitability of the models for the analysis of dynamic phenomena in electric propulsion system. 71
In the next procedure, it will be need to perform the linearization of models to determine of the electrical propulsion system control. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The project is supported by Slovak KEGA Agency for grant No. 035 STU 4 / 2014. REFERENCES Castro R., Araujo, R.,E., Taneli, M.,:Torque blending and wheel slip control in evs with inwheel motors, in Vehicle System Dynamics, 2012. Crowther, A., Zhang, N.,: Torsional finite elements and nonlinear numerical modeling in vehicle powertrain dynamics, in Journal of Sound and Vibration, 284 s 825-849, 2005. Dugoff, H., Fancher, P., Segel, L.: An analysis of tire traction properties and their influence on vehicle dynamic performance, in Tehnical paper of SAE, 1970. Ferencey, V., Madarás, J., Bugár, M.: Modelling of energy and powertrain system of the electric vehicle, in Ransport eans, Kaunas, Lithuania, 2012, ISBN 1822-296X. Grepl, R,: Modelování mechatronických systémú v Matlab SimMechanics, in BEN Praha, Technická literatura, 1.edition, 2007, ISBN 978-80-7300-226-8. Pacejka,H., B.: Tire and vehicle dynamics, in Oxford, Elsevier, 2006, ISBN 978-0-750-66918-4. Pyrhonen, J. at al.: Design of rotating electrical machines, in Chichester, John-Willey, Ltd. 2 nd. edition, 2008, ISBN 978-0-4707-4008-8. Skalický, J.: Teorie rízení 2., VUT Brno, 2002, ISBN 80-214-2112-6. Starek, L: Kmitanie mechanických sústav, in STU, Bratislava, 2006, ISBN 80-227-2491-2. Starek, L.: Kmitanie s riadením, in STU, Bratislava, 2009, ISBN 978-80-227-3227-7. Stecha, J., Havlena, V.: Teórie dynamických systémú, in Praha ČVUT, 1993, ISBN 978-80- 0100-941-3. 72
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 Controlling certain functions of the car remotely using a smartphone Ing. Marek Gašparík Slovak University of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering tel.: + 421 903 970 879, e-mail: [email protected] Abstract There has been a world-wide interest in the area of controlling different systems via smartphones. This paper deals with problems in the area of devices controlled by smartphone. The main objective was to produce a control unit CRC which controls some functions of the vehicle remotely by phone (either by Android application or DTMF). Following operations are supported: starting engine, opening windows, turning on heating or AC, windows defrosting, seat heating. If case of theft, telephone call is made to the owner. He can then block the engine via phone. Keywords CRC (Car Remote Control), smart phone, DTMF, Android application 1 INTRODUCTION The most dynamically developing element of today s world is the electronics. It has become a part of all industry areas. Automotive industry is no exception to that. Our goal is to design and construct a control unit able to control some of the car s functions via smartphone over almost unlimited distance. Since nowadays cars are equipped with modern specialized control elements, it was necessary to design and develop the control unit which would reliably and safely enough cooperate with the original control units, and in the same time wouldn t interfere with their basic control functions. This paper [1] proposes the use of remote control car for intrusion detection. The scheme concerns the use of a camera, remote control car, TCP server and smartphone. Paper [2] presents the first open security framework for secure smartphone-based immobilizers. Paper [3] tackles various issues, and an electronic system is designed and implemented in a real car that does not provide only car security feature but provides additional features such as unlocking and locking of the car, and switching ON and OFF the car engine remotely using smartphone. This paper basically discusses the technical aspects of 73
such electronic system. In this paper [4] the authors combine an adapted OAuth flow for Smartphone-to-Cloud communications with a novel key deployment mechanism for Public Key Infrastructures in vehicular networks. Thanks to the smartphone using mobile applications, we can remotely control a variety of external devices such as TVs, projectors for presentations, computers, and even cars in this paper [5]. The control unit is designed to fit any car. Figure 1: Control unit CRC 2 CONTOL UNIT FOR REMOTE CAR CONTROL VIA SMARTPHONE (CRC) One of the main roles of the control unit, among other features, is to start the engine remotely, or possibly increase the driver s comfort, whether in summer or winter. The car owner can open the windows, turn on the heating or air conditioning prior to entering the car. During the winter period it is possible to defrost the windows or turn on the seat heating. Other supported functions include controlling the 12V/20A socket, turning on the internal air conditioning or block the engine in case of car theft. One may ask why use the old-fashioned data transfer method (DTMF) instead of the internet, since almost everyone has an internet access on their mobiles today. The reasons we implemented this type of data transfer concern the economical point of view and the energy saving. Unlike the internet connection, it is free of charge. All you need for a DTMF data transfer is a mobile phone, even an old one which doesn t cost you anything. Moreover, it has a much lower energy consumption in a stand-by mode (approximately 6mA) than today s smartphones. 74
Figure 2: Block scheme of the control unit CRC 8. DATA TRANSFER PRINCIPLE As mentioned above, this control unit is involved into an atypical way of controlling the car itself, by detecting the DTMF signal coming from a mobile phone. DTMF - Dual-tone Multi Frequency is a tone which consists of two sinusoidal signals of an exactly given frequency. These frequency values are set to the values of these frequencies are set so easily swept by telecommunications. The telecommunications network is guaranteed bandwidth is around 0.3-3.4 khz. Typical transfer is represented by 50 ms of the tone duration and 50 ms of the silent interval. How is this signal (DTMF) created? As we can see in the following table, there are always two different frequencies amplitudes added together Frequencies: 1209 Hz 1336 Hz 1477 Hz 1633 Hz 697 Hz 1 2 3 A 770 Hz 4 5 6 B 852 Hz 7 8 9 C 941 Hz * 0 # D Figure 3: Standard connection of CM8870 [6] The table is arranged as a matrix keyboard. By combining the axis of X with the axis of Y we get two frequencies mixed together. There are 16 types of tone in the table, but there are only 12 commonly used beeping tones. The tones A D are system tones. Detectors used for decoding the signal are usually those specifically designed for it. One of the contributions of our work is also evaluating the detected signal by microprocessor and its connection with the other control elements of the car. It is a relatively new technology in process controlling. Mobile phone built directly into the car is controlled by several optocouplers connected instead of a keyboard. This allows the mobile phone to be controlled 75
quickly and precisely by sending the correct combination of bits from the main processor. For example an external telephone number can be dialled after the alarm goes off. The output audio signal from a mobile phone placed in the device is processed through a CM8870 integrated circuit which transforms the tone dialling into a digital output. Most of the decoders detect only the leading edges of the sine waves. This circuit works reliably effectively because it generates DTMF rectangular wave, thanks to modified RC units. The MT8870 uses two 6th order bandpass switching capacitors in which the output is a relatively pure sine wave despite the fact that it wasn t so pure at the input. All higher harmonics are cut off of course. 9. DATA PROCESSING PRINCIPLE This unit features the main processor Atmega 128 which performs all the main logical operations. It processes the instructions from the above mentioned integrated circuit. Subsequently the control program performs the necessary operations at the control unit periphery. If the command is executed, processor sends PWM signal to the phone which manifests itself as a response beeping signal in the user s phone. The process is similar also if for some reason it is not possible to execute the command. The air conditioning is controlled by optocouplers placed in corresponding keys, since it was not possible to connect it to the original communication K-BUS board. The control panel keys have a double function, e.g. turn the heating on and off. For this reason their control needs to contain a feedback too. It It ensures that if one function is activated, it can t be activated again, otherwise it would become deactivated. This feedback is provided by a simple signal scanning from the LEDs placed on the panel. The signal is processed by the mentioned above microprocessor which evaluates whether it is necessary to press a certain function on the panel. For turning the ignition on the relays RELEH700E1 with switching current of 50A are used and are designed specifically for extremely humid environment with great temperature changes. The car environment is very demanding as for the electronics life, and thus the reliability should be ensured by the described properties. 10. SECURITY AND PROTECTION Since safety is always first, this control unit has to contain many types of safety elements. In our proposed solution we have divided them into three categories. 1. The highest priority safety of the people and the surrounding property Outputs of the wheel motion sensor ABS, the gear box sensor neutral position and the handbrake position are used to evaluate whether the car is in motion or not. The control unit processes the signal from the wheel sensor of ABS system. If any wheel is turned by approximately 5º the control unit immediately stops the engine. 76
Figure 4: Inductive wheel speed sensor [7]: 1 - permanent magnet, 2 - soft magnetic pole piece, 3 - winding, 4 - cavity, 5 chainring Figure 5: Neutral position sensor There are two more conditions that need to be met for the car to be started remotely. Firstly, the handbrake has to be on. Monitoring this is very easy because the car already has a handbrake indicator. Secondly, car must be in a neutral position. Cars with manual transmission don t have an indicator for that so it was necessary to design something suitable for this purpose. To monitor the neutral position we used analogue optical distance sensor, which detects the exact position of the shifter. The figure below shows the sensor SHARP GP2Y0A41SK0F, which is fixed in the inner space around the shifter. It has an analogue output of 0,3V-3,2V. It measures the distance in the range of 4cm - 30cm. The detailed functionality is shown in the following figure. Figure 6: Block diagram and output characteristics of the GP2Y0A41SK0F sensor [8] 2. The second priority engine safety. The functionality of the warning lights (e.g. charging, engine temperature etc.) is checked prior to start by the control program in the ignition position. After this evaluation the control unit gives a command for the engine to start and keeps monitoring whether the important warning lights go off after some time. If they don t, the engine is stopped immediately. If they 77
go off and the engine is on, the system is switched to the normal operating mode, during which it keeps monitoring the engine temperature, oil pressure, charging, and of course, the safety conditions of the highest priority. It was important to deal with the possibility that the program itself could fail ( freeze ) and wouldn t be able to ensure the safety precautions from 1. and 2. described above. There is an independent function in the processor core called watchdog timer which is designed for such cases. This timer has to be reset in intervals of 50ms in different parts of the program. Otherwise, the processor will be reset automatically and thus cease all its operations. Another safety feature is the automatic shut down after and idle interval of more than 20 minutes. 3. The last safety feature prevents the system activation by unauthorised persons In order to start the program a 4-character numerical code is required. If the car has been stolen it is possible to enable the engine block function remotely. The CRC unit immediately sends signal to the engine control unit, which blocks the engine. 11. USE DESCRIPTION Required functions can be activated in two ways. The first one is via a normal phone without having installed the application for controlling this device. The device can then be controlled by the numeric keyboard, such as every mobile phone has. First, the number of the SIM card placed in the car is dialed. After the connection has been established it is necessary to enter the password (e.g. 1234). After the password has been accepted, this will be indicated by a sound. Then it is necessary to enter the number which corresponds with the desired function. If it is possible to carry out the action and it is carried out, an audio signal will announce this. 1 Engine ON 4 Short press: Heating and windows defrosting ON 4 Long press: Heating and windows defrosting OFF 5 Short press: Air conditioning ON 5 Long press: Air conditioning OFF 6 Automatic air conditioning ON 7 Sunroof OPEN 8 +12V/20A socket ON/OFF * Engine locked 0 Stop everything # Close everything and lock 2, 3, 9 Empty Figure 7: Control description numeric keypad 78
The second way is via application which needs to be installed into the smartphone with Android OS. Using this application, it is not necessary to remember all the numeric codes for respective functions, what the numbers mean and how to enter them. After starting the application just enter the password which unlocks the functionalities panel where it is possible to chose desired function. Figure 8: Entering password / Entering a wrong password / Main menu 12. CONCLUSION The main goal of our work was to design and construct electronic control system for a passenger car. Thanks to modern technology we are able to increase the every-day car experience and minimize theft. It is designed in a way that enables it to be installed in various types of cars. Previously described findings will be used in the further development of similar devices. REFERENCES [1] Ch. Ryu: The design of remote control car using smartphone for intrusion detection, Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering, v 203 LNEE, 2012, p 525-533 [2] Ch. Busold, A. Sadeghi, Ch. Wachsmann, A. Dmitrienko, H. Seudié, M. Sobhani, A. Taha: Smart keys for cyber-cars: Secure smartphone-based NFC-enabled car immobilizer, Proceedings of the 3rd ACM Conference on Data and Application Security and Privacy, 2013, p 233-242 [3] H. Afzal, V. Maheta: Low cost smart phone controlled car security system. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Industrial Technology, 9(2014) p 670-675, 79
[4] J. Timpner, D. Schürmann, L. Wolf: Secure smartphone-based registration and key deployment for vehicle-to-cloud communications. Proceedings of the 2013 ACM workshop on Security, 2013 31-36 [5] L. Jiyoung, H. Wooseok, L. Woojin: A Remote Lock System Using Bluetooth Communication, Innovative Mobile and Internet Services in Ubiquitous Computing (IMIS), 7(2014) 441-446 [6] Information on http://www.datasheetcatalog.org/datasheet/calmicro/cm8870.pdf [7] Information on http://www.mot.sk/index.php?option=com_content&task=view%20&id=753&itemid=1, [8] Information on http://forums.xilinx.com/xlnx/attachments/xlnx/otherbrd/661/1/analog-gp2y0a41sk0f.pdf, REVIEWED prof. Ing. Peter Šolek, CSc. Ing. Michal Dzurilla Ing. Michal Černý 80
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION IN THE E MOBILITY Mikuláš Huba*, Viktor Ferencey* * Institute of Automotive Mechatronics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Ilkovičova 3, 812 19 Bratislava, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Abstract The article briefly introduces notion, importance and history of the electromobility phenomenon and discusses the process of preparing professionals for its implementation and development in Slovakia. It is shown that the state administration responsible for the strategic development of electromobility has formally made some steps to support its development and to keep the unique world position of Slovakia in the car production. The paper emphasized the important role of the Slovak University of Technology in the electromobility education. The quality of teaching electromobility is backed by learning combining theoretical studies with experimental work based on using sophisticated teaching aids.. Keywords E-mobility, battery, fuel-cell, capacitor, power electronics, electric motor/generator, energy efficiency, teaching 1 INTRODUCTION Electro mobility (e-mobility) represents the concept of using electric powertrain technologies in vehicle, information and communication technologies and connected infrastructures to enable the electric propulsion of vehicles and fleets. Powertrain technologies include full electric vehicles battery electric vehicles, as well as hydrogen fuel cell vehicles that convert hydrogen into electricity. In other words, e-mobility denotes electrification of numerous transport means. Whereas the electrification of trains has started much earlier, i tis mostly related to different cars and lorries. In a broader sens, one could also include different autonomous vehicles moving on the ground (UGV), in air (UAV), under water, etc... Whereas our activities in UAVs control have already been reported [1], [2], in this paper we are going to focus on ground vehicles. Historically, e-mobility aims to equip our transport means by electric motor are far from being new. First vehicles equipped by such motors appeared already in 19th century. Important contribution to such development has also been made in Central Europe. And already at the end of 19th century the cars equipped with electric motor overcome the speed limit 100 km/h. However, in 20th century the public transport has been dominated by cars with internal combustion engine, that has been more convenient for an every-day use. Electric 81
cars survived just in some marginal applications, as e. g. for transporting luggage at railway stations, or airports, where they have been preferred due to lower noise and emissions. This situation started to change just after the first oil crises in 1973 and followed by permanently increasing oil prices. Together with increasing air pollution influencing negatively life in big city areas and contributing to global climate changes, the e-mobility concept started to be attractive again. Today, these economical and environmental factors are magnified by several others as, for example, decreasing fossil fuel resources, drive for energy independence, easier fuel consumption optimization by recuperation, easier construction, production, control and maintenance of electirc drives, etc. One of the main research targets is still related with appropriate energy storage systems allowing extended operating range of fully electric vehicles. Since the up-to-date vehicles are equipped with numerous supporting subsystems related to motion control, navigation, optimization, safety and overall usability, e- mobility development represents an interdisciplinary problem and requires integration of mechanical, electrical and electronic engineering with control and computer engineering, telecommunications, material sciences, etc. 2 MAIN CONCEPTS OF AN ELECTRIC VEHICLES The electric vehicle drive system includes: High voltage battery with control unit for battery regulation and charger; Electric motor / generator with electronic control, power electronic ; Transmission including the electric differential; Brake system with recuperation energy and with mechatronics systems ABS, ASR; For battery electric vehicles (BEV, Fig.1), the two basic operating modes are: a) Electric driving: the high-voltage battery supplies energy to the power electronics. The power electronics convert the direct voltage into an alternating voltage to drive the electric motor. Figure 1. Main components of a Battery Electric Vehicle [4] 1 Electric motor/generator, 2 Transmission with differential, 3 Power electronics, 4 High-voltage lines, 5 High-voltage battery, 6 Electronics box with control unit for battery regulation, 7 Cooling system, 8 Brake system, 9 High-voltage air conditioner compressor, 10 High-voltage heating, 11 Battery charger, 12 Charging contact for external charging, 13 External charging source. 82
b) Regenerative braking: if the electric vehicle coasts, the vehicle moves without drive torque from the electric motor. Part of the kinetic energy from the motor which functions as an alternator is fed back into the high-voltage battery. In the case of fuel cells electric vehicles, the electric driving mode may either be based directly on the energy produced by fuel cells. Or, if the high-voltage battery has been charged, the vehicle can be driven electrically from batteries. In this case, the fuel cell does not supply any energy and does not consume any hydrogen. The fuel cell is another alternative energy device. The process that takes place in the fuel cell to produce electrical energy from chemical energy is similar to a combustion engine. The energy conversion from fuel to output is much more direct with the fuel cell. The efficiency of a fuel cell is greater than a combustion engine. The fuel is industrially manufactured hydrogen. The fuel cell converets this to water using oxygen from the air. Hydrogen does have less energy than the hydrocarbons contained in fuel, but i tis easier to be combusted and there are only small losses in the energy conversion. There is no combustion residue or exhaust gases. Figure 2. Fuel cell e-mobile HONDA [4] 3 TRENDS IN THE E-MOBILITY DEVELOPMENT E-mobility development brings also numerous improvements of active safety and comfort. Beside the development and optimization of these most relevant vehicle subsystems, optimization on vehicle level may be extended by a new approach of a network system control considering interactions between the vehicles, the optimized systems and the drivers. This is supported by newest smart grid developments and innovative ICT solutions integrating different types of electrical vehicles and various urban mobility concept. Overview of the corresponding development is given by Fig. 3. 83
Figure 3. Trends in the e-mobility development Today, main advantages of e-mobility are wrapped around the engine used, for example: Electric drive motors run quieter than internal combustion engines. The noise emissions from electric vehicles is very low. At high speeds, the rolling noise from the tires is the loudest sound. Electric drive motors have excellent torque and output characteristics. They develop maximum torque from standstill. This allows an electric vehicle to accelerate considerably faster than a vehicle with internal combustion engine producing the same output. The drive train design is simpler because vehicle components like the transmission, clutch, particulate filters, fuel tank, starter, alternator and spark plugs are not required. Electric drive motors have a high degree of efficiency of up to 96% compared with internal combustion engines that have an efficiency 35-40%. When the vehicle is braked, the electric motor can also be used as an alternator that produces electricity and charges the battery. The energy is only supplied when the user needs it. The electric drive motor is highly efficient particularly in lines and bumper-to-bumper traffic. The electric drive motor is very robust and requires little mintenance. I tis only subject to monitor mechanical wear. In the near future, if particularly badly congested town centres are turned into zeroemissions zones, we will only be able to drive through them with high-voltage vehicles. 84
The limited driving range of electric vehicles is one of the biggest deployment challenges for e-mobility. A particularly important element that needs to be addressed is the battery management system, which is fundamental for many aspects of electrified vehicle performance, from energy efficiency to safety, battery life and reliability. Information and communication technologies (ICT) significantly contribute to enhancing the energy efficiency and thus the range of the vehicle by providing accurate prediction of the range and offering personalized options and services to the driver. Furthermore ICT supports recharging that is coordinated with the local electric grid capabilities. Such coordination must accommodate not only passenger EVs, but also meet the requirements of electric buses, vans or trucks, which are expected to require high-powered fast recharging. 4 LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK The paper Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area [5], analysis development in the transport area and outlines vision and objectives for a competitive and sustainable transport system development, for example [5]: The EU needs to reduce gas emissions by 80 95% below 1990 levels by 2050. By 2050, move close to zero fatalities in road transport. In line with this goal, the EU aims at halving road casualties by 2020, etc. Slovak Republic represents one of the largest car producer in the world and it takes a leading world position in the car production in per capita. However, from the point of view of the e-mobility development it occupies on of the last places in Europe. With respect to these deficiencies, in September 2015, after two years of preparations, Slovak government adopted the document Srategy of development of electromobility in the Slovak Republic and its impact on the national economy of the Slovak Republic. In this concept paper, training in this area is mainly delegated to universities, with special responsibility directed at the Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava (STU), where in section 3 Impulses for research, development, innovation and training specifically refers to quoting: Since 2015, FEI STU in Bratislava opens accredited degree program on electromobility, whose teaching will be provided by the Institute of Automotive Mechatronics of FEI STU. 5 INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK At the Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, the Institute of Automotive Mechatronics (IAMT) has been established at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technologies (FEI) in July 2013. Its human potential and long standing research tradition in applied mechanics, materials science, electronics, control engineering, information and communication technologies are the key attributes important for its activities in the e- mobility area. Strategic goal of the Institute is to foster development in Slovakia in a close inter regional collaboration with the industry of neighbor countries in Europe. The institute structure consists of four departments: Department of Applied Mechanics and Mechatronics. 85
Department of Information, Communication and Control Technology. Department of Electronic Systems. Department of Electromobility, Drives and Automation Technologies. As the core aspects of e-mobility study, we have chosen the areas of environment, politics, economy, society, infrastructure and technology. It is not possible to completely separate the content of these areas because there are complex relationships between them. Electric mobility is one of the fastest-growing areas in modern times, linking engineering, infra-structure, environment, transport and sustainable development. The new generation of spacialists in automotive mechatronics is the future of the automotive industry. Much depends on their knowledge and commitment to innovation in the decades to come. Achieving high production quality is not possible without the development and application of new intelligent control methods and control systems based on recent technologies of electrical equipment and components production. Based on analysis of present system architectures of electric vehicles the main objective of the e-mobility study will be theory and design of a multilevel architecture based on predictive, embeded, inteligent control systems using SMART features and technologies to enhance and optimize energy efficiency, functionality and modularity of electric vehicles with new electrical and electronic elements and devices architecture composed of smart devices and systems. The importance of new knowledge and system design is that it enables dynamic development and implementation of innovative, sophisticated technology in electric vehicles, thereby improving the tehnical and operational characteristics of future electric vehicles. The new architecture of electric vehicles can be successfully applied in developed European countries, but also in countries where the development of e-mobility is just starting, such as in Slovak Republic. The Institute of Automotive Mechatronics at FEI STU in Bratislava, should guarantee education and research in the field of new advanced technologies including the context of e- mobility: 1. Bachelor Study Program Automotive Mechatronics. 2. Master Study Program Applied Mechatronics and Electromobility. 3. PhD Study Program Applied Mechatronics and Electromobility. The aim of learning programs on the Automotive Mechatronics, Applied Mechatronics and Electromobility is preparation of high-quality professionals for the development of electromobility in the Slovak Republic. In addition to educational activities carried out within the accredited study programs, institute has ambition to widen its activities by being involved in the following projects: Education Center in electric mobility for middle and high schol. Preparation of experts for sophisticated jobs for companies in the automotive industry. Distance education in Applied Mechatronics and Electromobility. Dual forms of university education. 86
It is well known that education and research in rapidly developing area of e-mobility require high investments in systems and people. Thus, establishment of university-industry consortia represents the only possible way to a success. On the base of cooperation with industrial partners as Volkswagen, a.s. Bratislava, PSA Pegueot Citroen Slovakia, Continental AG Zvolen and numerous other industrial partners, institute can significantly contribute to be innovation and development of perspective transport systems and environmental future. 6 CONCLUSION The paper gives a short overview of the notion of e-mobility, of its aims and objectives. Legislative, institutional and learning framework of the staff development for the needs of the e-mobility boom in Slovakia have been discussed. It is shown that despite several positive aspects,without significant structural changes in the educational system in Slovakia, lack on well pepared engineers may be expected. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This work has been supported by grant KEGA No 035 STU 4 / 2014. REFERENCES [1] Huba, M., Bistak, P.,Ťapak, P.: Experiments and control engineering. In 8-th International Conference on Emerging e-learning Technologies and Applications ICETA. The High Tatras Slovakia, Elfa, Košice, 2010. [2] Huba, M., Malatinec, T., Huba, T.: Laboratory Experiments for Robust Constrained UAVs Control. In 10-th Symposium on Advances in Control Education ACE. Sheffield. UK: IFAC 2013. [3] Huba, M.: Steps to quality in e-learning. In 6-th International Conference on Emerginge- Learning Technologies and Applications ICETA. The High Tatras, Slovakia. Elfa, Košice, 2008, pp.211-214. [4] Kozák, Š., Frencey, V., Bugar, M.: E-mobility on Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technologies, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava. ELOSYS, Trenčín, Slovakia, 2015. [5] European Commission: Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system. EN/200293, 2011. 87
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 LABVIEW AND DATA SOCKET USAGE FOR REMOTE CONTROL OF A WORKPLACE Ing. Miroslav Kamenský, PhD, Ing. Eva Králiková, Ing. Jozefa Červeňová, PhD Institute of Electrical Engineering, FEI STU Bratislava, Slovakia. tel.: + 421 60291 393, e-mail: [email protected] Abstract The paper describes the usage of Data Socket technology for a design of modular system of applications. This set of cooperating applications is designed in LabVIEW environment which includes Data Socket in the package. A pair of modules called GO and DO module is needed for remote operation of one workplace, which is directly controlled by a DO module. The GO module communicates with the DO module through Data Socket variables and distributes measured data and even control over the network. The designer of a new workplace needs only to develop the application of DO module itself keeping communication rules. Hence our modular system simplifies and unifies design of remote accessed workplaces with higher level of software security. An application example is also described which was created to testify the functionality of the system. Keywords LabVIEW; Data Socket; remote access; remote experiments; measurement 1. INTRODUCTION For testing modern mechatronic systems remote access could be important feature of a managing software. It can distribute the access to a special and unique workplace for more users over a long distance. Similar requirement arose in the educational process at our Institute of Electrical Engineering. Nowadays the level of technology in practice makes it possible to share the relevant hardware and software resources among several students accessing the laboratory remotely using information technologies and internet. Internet and remote access tools are useful supporting means improving preparation of students for their working practice [1, 2]. Tasks which students have to solve in the time of education, regardless of doing them present in the laboratory or from remote computer, should be similar to real life problems. In the paper a novice software system is presented which allows not only providing simulation application for study at home but also remote access to real workplaces. 88
In the subjects taught at our institute especially for study program Applied Mechatronics (e.g. a subject Diagnostics and Electromagnetic Compatibility) expensive didactic panels composed of real automotive parts were procured. However, we had only one unique version of every panel type. To offer more working time for students or also to employ the equipment for distance learning we decided to build system of applications with remote access. There are available several software tools suitable for development of such applications, for simulations or for visual aids today [3]. Taking into account the history of software development at our institute we decided to use LabVIEW software environment for building the main parts of our modular software. The designed system will still allow the possibility of later addition of modules written in other languages. Furthermore the modular structure offers higher software security compared with standard concept of remotely accessible separate local applications. 2. MODULAR CONCEPT Our modular system is based on pairs of modules formed from GO module and DO module. To access the remote workspace or target application called DO module the user communicates over a superior GO module, which is placed on a dedicated server computer. Its purpose is to accept commands from a remote user and forward them to a target application or to distribute results to the remote user. For every DO and GO module pair the GO module is identical. DO module is unique, every carrying its own identifier (ID). On the central server computer several copies of GO modules are running allowing connection to target application holding the right ID. The front panel of the GO module is depicted in Fig. 1 in a state without any connection with DO module. 89 The front panel of the GO module represents the application user interface. For starting and ending the connection there are buttons Connect / Disconnect placed on the top of the front panel. The STOP button terminates the program entirely. The mode number (explained later), content of an auxiliary variable (used e.g. as countdown timer) and the ID of a target application are displayed in the upper right corner. The target module could be located on Fig. 1 Front panel of GO module any computer within the local network which is not directly visible from outside and hence protected against software attacks. This feature is especially important for high-end university laboratories cooperating with commercial sphere [4]. Properties of GO module influence the design of target applications and determine communication rules. The communication is always initiated by the GO module. It sends command over Data Socket variable and usually receives labels of push buttons to assign the functionality for the user.
The superior GO module then waits for user action and indicates it to the target module by sending number of the button being pushed. The target DO module replies by sending data to be drawn as a graph, written into the listing or with picture see marking of tabs in Fig. 1. 3. ACCESS TO DATA SOCKET VARIABLES Software tool LabVIEW [5] is designed as a high level graphical programming language (see Fig. 2). LabVIEW offers many libraries oriented to measurement, communication, etc. Moreover, it includes also Remote Panel and DataSocket components, which simplify the design of the system with remote access. Remote Panel is a simple way how to publish the front panel of a LabVIEW program for use in a standard Web browser. DataSocket is a software interface that provides easy access to several I/O mechanisms without low-level programming. This technology is based on industry-standard TCP/IP protocol, simplifies live data exchange between different applications on one computer or between computers connected via network. It represents an easy-to-use interface designed for sharing and publishing live data in measurement and automation applications. In general, the DataSocket is protocol-independent, language-independent, and OSindependent API designed to simplify binary data publishing. It automatically converts the user s measurement data into a stream of bytes that is sent across the network. The subscribing DataSocket application then converts the stream of bytes back into its original form. It consists of two pieces the DataSocket API and the DataSocket Server. The DataSocket API presents a single interface for communicating with multiple data types from multiple languages. The DataSocket Server needs to be running before the application tries to connect as a client to a shared variable. Tab.1 Commands defined for communication between GO and DO module WR/RD Command Initiator Command Parameter WR Init Communication 1 1 ID WR Refresh 2 3 ID WR Button Pressed 2 4 Button Number RD Write Button Label 2 6 ID RD Plot Graph 2 7 ID RD Write Listing 2 8 ID RD Draw Picture 2 9 ID RD Write only Message 2 10 ID 90
For managing the communication four DataSocket variables were created. Two of them are used for commands: G_ComID for sending; D_ComID for receiving commands coming from DO module. The label ID means identification number of the DO module which should be connected with GO module. Similarly, two another variables are used for data transmission: G_VarID - sending; D_VarID - receiving. Every command is followed by a data set transferred via those variables. If the GO module send command via G_ComID, afterwards it sends string G_VarID usually containing the content of the Parameter field entered by the user (Parameter edit box in Fig. 1). The GO module replies with command D_ComID followed by data in cluster D_VarID consisting of array of string, array of data and picture component. This cluster is always of the same type, but some items can be zero-length if e.g. the applications replies only with labels (strings) of buttons. For the logic of communication rules it was important to take special care for design of command variables and its treatment. Special SubVI subroutine represented by one icon in the main program called WR_Com (Fig. 2a) was designed which writes tree bytes to the shared variable (Fig. 2b shows the content of the subroutine). From this one can understand that commands take a form of three eight-bit numbers: Initiator; Command; Parameter. The second number is the actual command number. The first and third numbers are auxiliary significance. The list of already defined commands is shown in Tab. 1. There are points (modes) in the program where some software module waits for the command which should come over G_ComID or D_ComID variable. In this case it is essential to verify if the variable contains any data before reading. In Fig. 3 we can see the icon and also source code of the Check_Com SubVI. a) b) Fig. 2 Icon a) and source block diagram b) of the WR_Com subroutine. a) b) Fig. 3 Icon a) and source block diagram b) of the Check_Com subroutine. 91
4. STRUCTURE OF THE SOFTWARE Despite the fact that we have created both GO and DO modules, only the design of GO module is predefined. For every pair of modules the GO module is always the same only with different ID, while the programmer of the workplace control is responsible for DO module. In this sense we will describe mainly GO modules here and by DO module we will consider our example of DO module which could be used as a template. The GO modules functions as a state machine in several modes. In the block diagram (source code) of the application the modes are implemented using by Case Structure, which is simplified realisation of set of ifelse conditions. In LabVIEW this structure has form of a frame with the number of actual case meaning mode in our design in the upper edge of the frame. In Fig. 4 a part of the source code of the mode 2 is depicted for both modules. The GO module waits here for the user action and sends Button Pressed command or Refresh command via G_ComID variable see WR_Com (SubVI) in Fig. 4a. After sending the command it jumps into mode 4. Complementary the DO module checks, if a command was written in the G_ComID variable see WR_Com (SubVI) in Fig. 4b. If the command data are not ready it decrements the counter and stays in the same mode, until the counter reaches 0. So after expiring the predefined time a command has to be received, otherwise the connection will be interrupted. To avoid the unintended loss of connection in the case the user does not push any button, the GO module maintains the connection by sending Refresh command. a) b) Fig. 4 Part of a block diagram of the mode 2 for GO (a) and DO (b) module. 92
Fig. 5 Flowchart of the core algorithm of managing of GO and DO module cooperation. Overall, the modes can be divided into two groups: Modes 0-5 are designed to manage communication, modes 6-10 (later may arise others) are used for processing data sent from the DO module and for the implementation of actions visible to the user. In Fig. 5 the flowchart for the GO module is depicted. After starting the application it waits in mode 0 for an initial user action. If Connect button was pushed, initialization of variables is done in mode 1. At the same time the GO module sends a command Init Communication and moves to mode 4 waiting for response. If the answer does not come, communication is terminated in mode 3. If the answer was received, it has to be recognized in mode 5. From here it can proceed either into the mode 3 if incorrect command was received, or to higher modes according to the type of command. In those modes 6-10 the operation can be: Rename control buttons, Draw data in the graph, Output data to listing, Draw image, Show a string of characters. When the execution of requested action is finished, the program jumps back into the mode 2 and waits for the next user action. As was presented in Fig. 4 if one of the user buttons has been pushed, it evokes the command Button Pressed, otherwise command Refresh is used after the timer exceeds the limit. In both cases after sending the command the GO module waits again for response in the mode 4. The DO module might have similar structure. In our design we were using again the form of modes, where modes 0-5 are reserved for managing of communication (like mode 2 from Fig. 4b). The modes up from number 6 are intended for the application itself, i.e. for controlling of the workplace or processing and distribution of data obtained from the real measurement and for managing of the remote user interface. The mode 6 could for example send the labels of buttons. We can use separate modes for sending graphs, listings, pictures, displaying help, changing the labels of buttons again or for reaction to Refresh command. Together with the data also a short message is sent displayed at the bottom of GO module front panel, where auxiliary info about performed action and time of this last reaction could be published for the user (see Fig. 6a or Fig. 6b). 93
5. APPLICATION EXAMPLES To verify the proposed system, we created several target applications. In Fig. 6 one example of application for measuring current-voltage characteristics of electronic components is presented. In Fig. 6a the application it is displayed in the way how the remote user sees and controls the target module (over GO module) in Internet Explorer. Fig. 6b shows the possibility of control of the DO module directly using GO module located within the same network domain. Finally in the Fig. 6c the DO module front panel is depicted which can reproduce the actual display of GO module despite the fact that the control is redirected to the GO module. a) b) c) Fig. 6 Front panel of the application: a) GO module front panel accessed using internet explorer; b) front panel of the GO module accessed directly; c) front panel of DO module controlled remotely. After starting the GO module and pressing the Connect button the connection is initialized. The functionality of our application corresponds with labels assigned to the pushbuttons on the left side of the main tab control. After the Measure button in GO module was pushed the measurement itself is accomplished. The parameter value received in DO module is forwarded to a DC source (Agilent 3640A) using GPIB bus. Then the current is measured over USB interface (Agilent 34405A). The voltage on the tested component is calculated from generated DC level subtracting voltage drop on a serial resistor. The DO module can treat with out of range or mismatched received values. Measured data are added to arrays and shifted to GO module for displaying in a Graph tab. Sometimes it is need to clear previously measured arrays by pushing Clear Data button. The Listing button shows data arrays in Listing tab of the front panel. The graph is transmitted as an image if choosing corresponding control (Image). Help can be also shown as a picture in the Image tab. For remote control via internet browser only the GO module must be published using web publishing tool available in LabVIEW, i.e. Remote Panel [6]. Typical application could be measurement of diodes. V-A characteristic of a rectifier diode was measured in Fig. 6a and inverse direction Zener diode characteristic in Fig. 6b. The application could be easily adapted into simulation mode like shown in Fig. 6c where for demonstration simple cubic function 94
was simulated. This DO module was implemented using modes 0-5 for communication management (omitting mode 4) and modes 6-12 for functionalities of the application itself. 6. CONCLUSION A modular system of remote applications was created suitable for remote control of unique systems like mechatronics didactic panels used in education process. The system consists of set of pairs of DO and GO software modules communicating with each other. Both modules in the pair are located in the same network domain while only GO module is accessible from the internet hence the local PC controlling the workplace stays in highly protected position. For creation of the system LabVIEW programming environment and tools Data Socket and Remote Panel were used. We designed the mutual communication of modules over four Data Socket variables and presented in details how the access to the variables was implemented. We have developed universal GO module, which can cooperate with any DO module keeping the given communication rules. DO modules intended for control of the real equipment and workplace can be developed in any programming environment. In the paper also an example of DO module was presented created in LabVIEW and designed for measuring of V-A characteristics of electronic components. This example can run also in simulation mode and can be used for education process, as a template for development of other applications or for testing of functionality of the designed modular system within engaged computer networks. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This work was supported by the Slovak Cultural and Education Agency under grant No. KEGA-016STU-4/2014 REFERENCES [1] Chen, X., Song, G., Zhang, Y.: 'Virtual and Remote Laboratory Development: A Review', Earth and Space 2010: Engineering, Science, Construction and Operations in Challenging Environments, pp. 3843-3852. [2] Bisták, P., Ţáková, K.: Rapid Design of Simple Remote Laboratory Using Matlab. In ICETA 2013, 11th IEEE International Conference on Emerging elearning Technologies and Applications. October 24-25, 2013 Starý Smokovec, Slovakia. IEEE, 2013, CD ROM, pp. 41-45. ISBN 978-1-4799-2161-4. [3] Čičáková, O., Králiková, E.: 'Modeling and Simulation in Measurement', International Conference on Innovative Technologies, IN-TECH 2015, Dubrovnik, September 09-11 2015, pp. 343 346. 95
[4] Bielik, R., Hallon, J.: Program System for Controlling EMC Measurements and Collecting Measured Data. In Measurement Science Review. Vol. 5, section 3 (2005), pp.78-81. ISSN 1335-8871. [5] LabVIEW. National Instruments, http://www.ni.com/labview/ [6] Singh, A. K., Chatterji, S., Shimi, S. L., Gaur, A.: 'Remote Lab in Instrumentation and Control Engineering Using LabVIEW', International Journal of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, Vol. 3, No. 4, August 2015. Expert proofreading: doc. Ing. Ján Vlnka, PhD. 96
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 RIEŠENIE ALUMÍNIUM-GÁLIUM-NITRIDOVEJ MEMBRÁNY POMOCOU NUMERICKÉHO VÝPOČTU V ANSYS MULTIPHYSICS Ing. Tomáš Kováč Institute of Applied Mechanics and Mechatronics, STU Bratislava, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected] Ing. František Horvát Institute of Applied Mechanics and Mechatronics, STU Bratislava, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected] Ing. Michal Čekan, PhD. Institute of Applied Mechanics and Mechatronics, STU Bratislava, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected] doc. Ing. Branislav Hučko, PhD. Institute of Applied Mechanics and Mechatronics, STU Bratislava, Slovakia, e-mail: [email protected] Abstrakt Príspevok sa zaoberá numerickým riešením piezoelektrického materiálu v programe ANSYS Multiphysics, matematickým aparátom potrebným pre správne pochopenie a riešenie úlohy a porovnaním výsledkov s experimentálne získanými údajmi. Príspevok ďalej poskytuje základné informácie o piezoelektrických materiáloch, priamom a inverznom piezoelektrickom jave, konštitutívnych rovniciach piezomateriálov umožňujúcich definovanie mechanických a elektrických vlastností, tvorbe ekvivalentného modelu a spôsobe jeho výpočtu, experimentálnych meraniach a hodnotení výsledkov. Kľúčové slová ANSYS Multiphysics, experimentálne zariadenie, Alumínium-Gálium-Nitrid, konštitutívne rovnice, geometrické prvky, numerický výpočet, membrána 97
1. ÚVOD Príspevok je riešený v rámci projektu VEGA 1/0712/14 Mikro-elektromechanický systém (MEMS) akumulácie energie pre vyuţitie v medicíne a venuje sa postupom numerického riešenia mebrány z piezoelektrického nekonvenčného materiálu kombinácie Alumínium- Gálium-Nitrid. Pri numerických výpočtoch piezoelektrických materiálov veľmi často dochádza k zásadným rozdielom medzi výsledkami simulácie vzhľadom na výsledky získané pri experimentálnom meraní. Tieto rozdiely sú spôsobené najčastejšie zle zvolenými parametrami numerického riešiča, nekorektným nastavením okrajových podmienok, nesprávnymi materiálovými vlastnosťami, prípadne rapídnym zjednodušením geometrických vlastností skúmaného objektu. Samotná presnosť výsledkov je podmienená konzistentnosťou definovaných podmienok pouţitých pri numerickom riešení úlohy. Dosiahnuté výsledky riešenia numerického výpočtu boli pouţité pri návrhu experimentálneho zariadenia určeného na overovanie elektrickej odozvy membrány vyrobenej z piezoelektrického materiálu AlGaN. 2. SKÚMANÁ MEMBRÁNA Pri tvorbe ekvivalentného modelu potrebného pre numerický výpočet v prostredí ANSYS Multiphysics boli zohľadnené geometrické vlastnosti membrány vzhľadom na Obr.1. Membrána kruhového tvaru o polomere 750 µm je tvorená spojením dvoch vrstiev, kde horná vrstva je vyrobená z veľmi tenkej (len 20 nm) AlGaN. Spodná vrstva (4,2 µm) je tvorená materiálom GaN a pod nimi sa nachádza vrstva SiC. Hrúbka kremíkového substrátu je 350 µm. Medzi vrstvami AlGaN a GaN v dôsledku spojenia dvoch polovodičových vrstiev vzniká dvojdimenzionálny elektrónový plyn (2DEG). Tento plyn vytvorí medzi vrstvami kanál s vysokou koncentráciou elektrónov slúţiaci pre prenos prúdu pozdĺţ rozhrania vrstiev. Kvalita kanálu s 2DEG má významný vplyv na veľkosti vzniknutého piezoelektrického náboja na povrchu vrstvy AlGaN. Obr. 1 Rozmery ekvivalentného modelu membrány Program ANSYS Multiphysics vyuţíva pri numerických riešeniach matematický opis piezoelektrických materiálov prostredníctvom diskretizácie povrchu membrány na konečnoprvkovú sieť, definovania mechanickcých a elektrických vlastností prostredníctvom konštitutívnych rovníc a to na základe definovania druhu piezoelektrického materiálu vzhľadom na ich ne/schopnosť polarizácie. 98
3. PIEZOELEKTRICKÉ MATERIÁLY A POLARIZÁCIA Piezoelektrické materiály patria do skupiny dielektrických materiálov. Najviac vyuţívané sú piezoelektrické monokryštály, piezoelektrické kryštály a piezoelektrické polyméry. Vyznačujú sa schopnosťou generovať elektrické napätie, resp. elektrický náboj. Schopnosť generovania elektrického náboja je závislá od mechanickej deformácií alebo od deformácie vzniknutej pôsobením elektrického poľa. Táto schopnosť materiálu sa nazýva piezoelektrický jav. Piezoelektrický jav vzhľadom na spôsob deformácie môţe byť priamy alebo inverzný. Inverzný piezoelektrický jav vzniká pri deformácií štruktúry piezoelektrického materiálu pôsobením elektrického poľa. Pri priamom piezoelektrickom jave dochádza vzhľadom na veľkosť mechanickej deformácie štruktúry piezoelektrického materiálu k impulznému generovaniu elektrického náboja. Na Obr. 2 je znázornený priamy a inverzný piezoelektrický jav, ktorý je moţné sledovať výhradne u materiálov s nerovnomerným usporiadaním atómov v kryštalickej mrieţke. Obr. 2 Priamy a inverzný piezoelektrický jav [2] Štruktúra AlGaN je vzhľadom na svoju nosnú vrstvu GaN typický predstaviteľ piezoelektrickej keramiky. Piezoelektrická keramika nemá ţiadnu usporiadanú štruktúru a ani ţiadne piezoelektrické vlastnosti. Materiál tieto vlastnosti nadobúda aţ po polarizácií silným elektromagnetickým poľom. Proces polarizácie je znázornený na Obr. 3. Elektromagnetické pole je jednosmerné a vplyvom jeho pôsobenia dochádza k zoradeniu náhodne orientovaných osí polarít jednotlivých kryštálov, Obr. 3a v smere elektrického poľa, Obr. 3b. Táto orientácia zostáva v materiáli zachovaná aj po skončení pôsobenia elektrického poľa, Obr. 3c. Materiál sa tak stáva piezoelektrickým permanentne. Na druhej strane samotný materiál AlGaN obsahuje polarizáciu, vďaka svojej nesymetrickej kryštálovej štruktúre (hexagonal). V tomto prípade preto nie je potrebný ţiadny polarizujúci proces. Navyše výhoda AlGaN je, ţe jeho piezoelektrické vlastnosti sú platné v širokom rozsahu teplôt, teda zostávajú zachované aj po ohriatí na tzv. Curieho teplotu. 99
Obr. 3 Proces polarizácie piezoelektrickej keramiky [4] 4. KONŠTITUTÍVNE ROVNICE Materiálové a fyzikálne vlastnosti potrebné pre numerický výpočet membrány z AlGaN opisujú konštitutívne rovnice. Správanie sa mechanických vlastností vychádza z konštitutívnych rovníc, ktoré opisujú Hookov zákon (1) a elektrických z konštitutívnych rovníc, ktoré opisujú vlastnosti dielektrika (2)., - (1), - (2) kde: S je deformácia, ζ je napätie, Ex je Youngov modul pruţnosti, D je posunutie, ε je permitivita dielektrika a E je elektrické pole. Piezoelektrický jav je závislý súčasne od mechanických ako aj od elektrických podmienok a na jeho matematický opis sa vyuţívajú elektromechanické konštitutívne rovnice (3) a (4)., - (3), - (4) kde: v rovnici (3) je d piezoelektrická konštanta, ktorá odpovedá deformácii k elektrickému poľu E pri neprítomnosti mechanického napätia, v rovnici (4) je konštanta d, ktorá odpovedá elektrickému náboju na jednotku napätia plochy D k napätiu, pokiaľ je elektrické pole nulové a ε ζ je permitivita piezoelektrického materiálu s konštantným napätím. Z dôvodu anizotropnosti piezoelektrického materiálu bolo potrebné pri popise materiálových konštánt vyuţiť tenzorový zápis vychádzajúci z Kartézskeho súradného systému. Pre úplnosť je Karteziánsky súradnicový systém uvedený na Obr. 4. 100
Obr. 4 Uvaţovaný Karteziánsky súradnicový systém tenzorového zápisu kde: 1 je zaťaţenie v smere osi x, 2 zaťaţenie v smere osi y, 3 zaťaţenie v smere osi z, 4 šmyk v rovine yz, 5 šmyk v rovine xz a 6 šmyk v rovine xy Ak smer polarizácie je totoţný so smerom osi z konštitutívne rovnice nadobúdajú tvar (5) a (6). kde: indexy i, j = 1,2,3,...,6 a m, k = 1,2,3 zodpovedajú jednotlivým smerom súradnicového systému Výhoda polarizácie piezoelektrického materiálu v smere osi z spôsobuje, ţe materiál je priečne izotropný. V prostredí ANSYS Multiphysics sa konštitutívne rovnice piezoelektrického materiálu zapisujú v maticovom tvare. Priečna izotropia materiálu výrazne zjednodušuje základné matice rovníc (5) a (6). Zjednodušenia matice poddajnosti, piezoelektricity a permitivity nadobúdajú nasledujúce tvary: 1.) zhodné prvky matice poddajnosti: (5) (6) ( ) 2.) zhodné prvky matice piezoelektricity: 101
3.) zhodné prvky z matice permitivity: Rovnice (5) a (6) v maticovom tvare spolu a po úprave dostávajú nasledujúci tvar (7) a (8): [ ] (7) [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] (8) [ ] Takto upravené matice je moţné pouţiť na popis inverzného ako aj priameho piezoelektrického javu piezoelektrického materiálu. Pri simulácii boli uvaţované tri typy materiálov a to AlGaN, GaN, ktoré tvoria membránu a SiC, ktorý slúţi ako podkladová vrstva. Vlastnosti týchto materiálov sú v ANSYS Multiphysics striktne rozdelené na mechanické a piezoelektrické. Mechanické vlastnosti boli definované pre všetky vyššie spomenuté vrstvy. Piezoelektrické vlastnosti iba pre vrstvu AlGaN a z dôvodu merania odozvy práve na tejto vrstve. Maticu poddajnosti uvedenú v (7) nedokáţe program ANSYS spracovať. Preto je potrebné maticu poddajnosti upraviť vzhľadom na predpis uvedený v programe ANSYS na maticu tuhosti. Vo všeobecnosti je moţné maticu tuhosti o rozmere 6x6 zredukovať na 21 konštánt. V prípade, ţe ide o anizotropný materiál je potrebné týchto 21 konštánt nájsť analyticky alebo experimentálne a to aj v prípade, ţe daný materiál je homogénny. Matica poddajnosti S je inverzná k matici tuhosti C, a preto následne dostávame tvar (9)., - (9) [ ] 102
Dolnotrojuholníkový tvar matice tuhosti je všeobecný predpis stanovený IEEE, ktorý platí pre priamy ako aj inverzný piezoelektrický efekt. Softvér ANSYS však pre anizotropný materiál ako je GaN a tieţ AlGaN nepouţíva dolnotrojuholníkový, ale hornotrojuholníkový zápis. Nakoľko sa jedná o symetrickú maticu jej transformovaný všeobecný predpis na hornotrojuholníkový tvar neuvádzame. [7] Ďalším špecifikom pri riešení piezoelektrických materiálov je úprava matice piezoelektrických vlastností vrstvy AlGaN v zmysle predpisu IEEE obdobne ako pri matici poddajnosti v programe ANSYS do tvaru (10)., - (10) [ ] 5. KONEČNOPRVKOVÁ SIEŤ Na riešenie piezoelektrickej úlohy bolo potrebné pre jednotlivé časti modelu preddefinovať prvky pre výpočet mechanických a piezoelektrických vlastností. Na výpočet mechanických bol pouţitý prvok PLANE183 a jeho osemuzlový variant. Tento prvok je veľmi vhodný práve pre rovinné a osovo symetrické úlohy. Z tohto dôvodu bol vyuţitý pre všetky tri vrstvy modelu. V prípade riešenia piezoelektrických vlastností bol vrstve AlGaN priradený prvok PLANE223. Táto vrstva je elektricky aktívna vrstva. Tento prvok je rovnako rovinný osemuzlový prvok, ktorý odoberá 4 stupne voľnosti kaţdému uzlu. Táto vlastnosť umoţňuje riešenie úloh v ktorých dochádza k veľkým priehybom vplyvom piezoelektricity. 2-D prvok PLANE183 a prvok PLANE223 je znázornený na Obr. 5. Obr. 5 Geometria 2-D prvku PLANE183 a PLANE223 V prípade oboch pouţitých prvkov je moţné vzhľadom na geometriu modelu zvoliť aj ich 6 uzlové varianty. Vzhľadom na Obr. 1 je zrejmé, ţe skúmaná úloha je rovinná osovo symetrická a teda s modifikáciami nie je potrebné uvaţovať. 103
6. NUMERICKÝ VÝPOČET MEMBRÁNY V prípade simulácie v programe ANSYS Multiphysics bol vytvorený rovinný osovo symetrický model ekvivalentný meranej membráne podľa Obr. 1. Analýza prebiehala v dvoch krokoch so zmenou typu elementu po vytvorení predpätého stavu vo vrstve AlGaN. Dané krokovanie bolo zvolené z dôvodu zamedzenia vzniku veľkých odchýlok a tým chýb vo výsledkoch. Ako bolo vysvetlené v predchádzajúcom texte v prípade pouţitia programu ANSYS Multiphysics je potrebné zadať samostatne mechanické ako aj elektrické vlastnosti piezomateriálov v hornotrojuholníkovom tvare matice tuhosti a matice piezoelektrických vlastností materiálu AlGaN. Matica tuhosti materiálu AlGaN nadobúda tvar (11), materiál GaN tvar (12) a materiál SiC tvar (13). Piezoelektrické vlastnosti materiálu AlGaN majú tvar (14). Mechanické vlastnosti: - Vrstva AlGaN:, - (11) - Vrstva GaN: [ ], - (12) - Vrstva SiC: [ ], - (13) [ ] Piezoelektrické vlastnosti: 104
- Vrstva AlGaN:, - (14) [ ] Pre korektné výsledky numerického riešenia je nevyhnutné správne definovanie okrajových podmienok. Model membrány bol ukotvený vybraním všetkých uzlov konečno-prvkovej siete na vonkajšom polomere membrány spolu s uzlami na kremíkovom podklade a odobraním všetkých stupňov voľnosti týmto uzlom. Takto definovanou okrajovou podmienkou bola aproximovaná väzba medzi kremíkovým substrátom, vrstvami AlGaN a GaN a okolím. Ďalšou podmienkou bolo definovanie zaťaţujúceho tlaku pôsobiaci na membránu s hodnotou 0 20 kpa. Následne bolo zadefinované predpätie membrány. Pri výrobe membrány počas nanášania jednotlivých vrstiev a následnom ţíhaní dochádza k zmiešaniu AlGaN a GaN čo spôsobuje vznik reziduálneho napätia medzi týmito vrstvami. Veľkosť tohto napätia bolo stanovené ako priemerné napätie pre vrstvu GaN aj AlGaN na hodnotu pribliţne 40 MPa. Vzhľadom na nedokonalosť výroby membrány sa však táto hodnota môţe pohybovať aj v v intervale ďaleko väčšom ako ±10 MPa. Z tohto dôvodu boli vykonané tri simulácie a to s predpätím 30 MPa, 40 MPa a 50 MPa. Výsledky z týchto statických analýz budú slúţiť ako počiatočné podmienky pre výpočet piezoelektricity. Vyššie uvedené okrajové podmienky sú znázornené na Obr. 6. Obr. 6 Okrajové podmienky modelu S prvkov PLANE183 a PLANE223 bola vytvorená konečno-prvková sieť rovinného osovo symetrického modelu membrány. Pri vytváraní siete bol braný v úvahu minimálny počet prvkov cez hrúbku vrstvy, t.j. 2 pre vrstvu AlGaN a GaN a tieţ rovnomerné rozloţenie siete vzhľadom na polomer membrány. Vytvorená konečno-prvková sieť pouţitá pri výpočte sa nachádza na Obr. 7. 105
Obr. 7 Konečno-prvková sieť modelu membrány Numerickým výpočtom bolo moţné odhadnúť, aký náboj dokáţe produkovať skúmaný piezoelektrický materiál pri mechanickom zaťaţení. Zároveň bolo moţné určiť ďalšie vlastnosti membrány ako jej maximálnu pevnosť, maximálny tlak akým je moţné membránu zaťaţiť a tieţ určiť vlastné tvary a vlastné uhlové frekvencie membrány. Poznanie uvedených fyzikálnych veličín bolo potrebné vedieť pre realizáciu samotného experimentu. 7. POROVNANIE VÝSLEDKOV Meranie na membráne bolo vykonané za dodrţania zaťaţujúcich podmienok uvedených vyššie. Počas experimentu bola pre zaťaţovanie membrány zvolená kvapalina vzhľadom na jej fyzikálne vlastnosti. Bolo vykonaných desať meraní membrány v rozsahu 1 aţ 28 kpa. Rozsah zaťaţenia musel byť zmenený vzhľadom na moţnosti regulácie sústavy na ktorej bolo realizované meranie. Spracovanie nameraných hodnôt a hodnôt zo simulácií sa nachádza v Tab. 1. Grafické znázornenie nameraných hodnôt sa nachádza na Obr. 8. 106
charge [pc] Data from simulation in ANSYS MULTIPHYSICS Experimental data p [kpa] charge Q at 30 MPa [pc] charge Q at 40 MPa [pc] charge Q at 50 MPa [pc] pressure [kpa] charge Q [pc] 1 1,9036 1,6911 1,5290 1,1233 1,0388 2 3,7265 3,3301 3,0218 1,7083 1,5694 3 5,4643 4,9107 4,4736 3,1143 2,9981 5 8,5881 7,8483 7,2531 5,8433 5,6272 10 15,0141 14,113 13,2765 11,1073 10,0203 15 20,1612 19,2541 18,3498 14,1553 13,7016 20 24,5405 23,6287 22,7253 28,0416 25,2063 Tab. 1 Hodnoty získané simuláciou a experimentálnym meraním 30 25 20 experimental and simulation data y = -0,0261x 2 + 1,7242x + 0,4029 R² = 0,9996 y = -0,0223x 2 + 1,6133x + 0,2083 R² = 0,9999 y = -0,0188x 2 + 1,5049x + 0,103 R² = 0,9999 y = 0,9021x + 0,2055 R² = 0,9983 15 10 5 0 prestress 30 MPa prestress 40 MPa measured prestress 50 MPa 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 pressure [kpa] Obr. 8 Grafické znázornenie získaných hodnôt Hodnoty predpokladanej veľkosti náboja získané zo simulácií v programe ANSYS Multiphysics pri rôznych predpätiach membrány pokrývajú výrobnú toleranciu +/- 10 MPa. Charakter správania sa piezoelektrického materiálu za uvaţovaných podmienok je rýdzo polynomický s vysokými hodnotami regresie nad 99 %. Veľkosť predpätia medzi vrstvami 107
AlGaN a GaN nemá na membránu zásadný vplyv nakoľko po linearizácii oblasti v rozsahu 5 aţ 20 kpa je rozdiel v smerniciach priamok pri predpätí 30 MPa a 50 MPa od predpokladaného predpätia 40 MPa na úrovni 0,4 %. Pri ďalšom porovnaní výsledkov je moţné sledovať značný rozdiel voči výsledkom získaných z experimentálneho merania. Percentuálny rozdiel v hodnote smernice priamky v linearizovanej oblasti údajov získaných simuláciou voči hodnote smernice z údajov získaných experimentom je na úrovni 4,25%. Tieto rozdiely sú spôsobené jednak nedokonalým modelovaním skúmanej membrány, mechanických a elektrických vlastností skúmaného materiálu, transformovaním okrajových podmienok v rámci numerického riešenia v ANSYS Multiphysics a tieţ samotným zariadením pouţitom pri experimentálnych meraniach. V numerickom riešení bolo uvaţované s membránou ako ideálnym kruhom a tieţ s ideálnym kruhovým otvorom, kolmými stenami otvoru ako aj s ideálnymi vlastnosťami pracovného média ktoré bolo pouţité na zaťaţenie membrány. Hodnoty matíc tuhosti a piezoelektricity pouţitých materiálov sa líšia vzhľadom na pouţitú literatúru. Tieto drobné odlišnosti je tieţ potrebné v prípade skúmania mikroštruktúr zohľadniť. Po zohľadnení všetkých nepresností a moţných chýb môţeme vzhľadom na 4.25 % rozdiel hodnôt povaţovať nadobudnuté výsledky za reálne a akceptovateľné. POĎAKOVANIE Tento príspevok bol podporený grantom v rámci grantovej agentúry VEGA, č. 1/0712/14 Mikro-elektromechanický systém (MEMS) akumulácie energie pre vyuţitie v medicíne. REFERENCES [1] KERMANI M., MOALLEM M., PATEL R. Applied Vibration Suppresion Using Piezoelectric Materials, New York: Nova Scienece Publishers, Inc., 2008, ISBN-13: 978-1-60021-896-5, 176 p. [2] URL: https://wiki.metropolia.fi/display/sensor/piezoelectric+sensing [3] DZUBA J. Návrh MEMS senzorov tlaku na báze AlGaN/GaN HEMT snímacích štruktúr: Písomná práca k dizertačnej skúške, Bratislava: FEI STU 2013, 59 p. [4] VATANSEVER D., SIORES E., SHAH T. Alternative Resources for Renwable Energy: Piezoelctric and Photovoltaic Smart Structures, Bolton: Institute for Materials Research and Inovation, Univerzity of Bolton, 2012. URL: https://www.pc-control.co.uk/piezoelectric_effect.htm [5] ERHART J. Základy piezoelektřiny pro aplikace, Brno: Ústav automatizace a měřici techniky VUT v Brne, 2011. URL: http://www.crr.vutbr.cz/system/files/brozura_06_1112.pdf [6] URL: http://www.ansys.com/products/simulation+technology/fluid+dynamics/specialized +Products/ANSYS+Polyflow/Features/Online+Help+&+Documentation [7] ERTURK,A., INMAN D.J. Piezoelectric energy harvesting. First edition. Wiley Publication, 2011, ISBN: 978-0-470-68254-8, 402 p. Expert proofreading of the article: Assoc.prof. Eng. Ľuboš Magdolen, PhD. 108
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 DEVELOPMENT OF MECHATRONIC SYSTEM MEDICAL AND SPORTS PURPOSES Ing. Jozef Pavelka Institute of manufactoring systems, environmental technology and quality management, tel.: + 421 903897826, e-mail: [email protected] Abstract The aim of the publication is to give attention to advantages and possibilities of strengthening by hydraulic fluid resistance and, advatiges of isokinetic resistance. As an example for experiment we used a prototype of the linear synchronous hydromotor in accordance with the aims of STU Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in link with the bachelor and diploma work. Keywords Biokinetics, biomechatronics, medical and fitness equipments, hydraulic system, elecrtonics for medical and fitness equipmen,program control 1. INTRODUCTION Technical progress of society causes loss of active movement, to which we can t adapt so quickly. In consequence arise variety of diseases, not only physical but also psychological. For healthy development of human, especially younger age is very important to improve the quality of physical education by application of results of research and development and using modern diagnostic systems. For physically weakened schoolchildren is very important medical approach and its use in health service, particularly in the field of rehabilitation. This field of interest comes under the name of 'mechanotherapy' and is usable for therapeutic and rehabilitaion departments but also for domestic purposes. It combines three disciplines, namely medical, physical and technology industries with emphasis on operating conditions, considering psychological and mental aspects. From practice is known that a many perfect technical solutions are not accepted by sport community. Certain signs from experience suggest that this problem can not be underestimated. For example, canoeists and swimmers talk about 'contact with water' or 109
bodybuilders say that the 'device has a nice run.' This is a reconciliation of ergonomics, functional anatomy, design and suitable materials. The basis for healthy development of the musculoskeletal system is in natural movements that are encoded in our gene fund. For exercise in natural movements is convenient motion in diagonals to load the torso and limbs of man. The natural motion includes cyclic movements such as running, swimming, jumping, but also work with a scythe, ax, shovel, which applied on the whole body. We can simulate all these physical structures using the apparatus described. 2. COMPARISON OF THE TYPES OF LOADS In strengthening, conditioning training, rehabilitation and mechanotherapy occurs following types of loads: Gravity load using dumbbells, different weights Flexible load using metal or rubber springs Friction load using different brakes, friction cones Magnetic brakes Air load (pneumatic cylinder, principle of the fan) Hydraulic load (use properties of fluids) Combined loads in different connections, serial, parallel or combined 3. DESCRIPTION OF ISOKINETIC MACHINE BASED ON SYNCHRONOUS LINEAR HYDRAULIC MOTOR The advantage of an isokinetic device is in a wide range of possible applications. It allows us to design and set up precisely variation of force - distance, force - velocity in sport training and it provides possibility of cross-checking of performance set on hydraulic device. The device can be calibrated by constant choking in calibration curves of function of force versus speed, to get the power performance of the exercise. Depending on the time we get impulse and momentum variables, which gives us comprehensive evaluation of motoric abilities of the athlete. The device can help in the work of trainers by giving objective description of exercise. The big advantages are reliability of isokinetic device on the principle of hydraulic resistance, low-maintenance, high durability, simplicity and low weight. The device is suitable to for scientific purposes, competitive sports, in rehabilitation prevention and mass sports. 110
Figure no. 1 Workstation for mechatronic system hydrodyn 4. PATENT FOR INDUSTRIAL DESIGN NO. 224959 AND INVENTION NO. 178964 The hydraulic device consists of a synchronous linear hydraulic motors with through-rod. On the top of the frame structure is connected a pulley gear i = 1: 10 to output pulleys. Reverse running is maintained by springs or by gravity of load. In the cylinder are two chambers connected through a bypass flow control valve. We can set the choking in upwards direction and free flow in downward direction (Figure 2). On this device from the Slovak author trained the national team in the swimming, watermens, and European champion Miroslav Rolko. Weight of device is 22kg and length of stroke pulling both handles is 1m, i=1:5 and pulling only one handle is length of stroke 2m, i=1:10. Construction allows clamping on the wall bars, and on the ground. It should be noted that ever since the great technical progress took a place in particular in the field of mechatronics, we are able to improve and modernize good old ideas and move it to the next level. Figure no. 2 hydrodyn HP2, the industrial design patent no. 224959 111
Rotary encoder Pressure meter Communication interface Microprocessor unit Load cell Computing unit High level controller Visualization Database operations Local display Electronic regulated valve Figure no. 3 Block diagram of mechatronic structure of the hydraulic actuator 5. DESCRIPTION OF FUNCTION OF THE CONTROL ELECTRONICS By connecting the device into the USB port of a computer, all peripheral and the microprocessor will get 5V supply voltage. In the first initialization step the pressure gauge will be calibrated and the reference pressure that may be present in the cylinder at the idle state shall be evaluated. Then the main evaluation process will initiate. In the main program, the position of the piston will be read by means of a rotary encoder. This process uses interruptions for secure tracking of the exact location. In the event the wire getting loose, or of an accidental slip of the rope on the pulley, the absolute position is being preserved by a utility program. The encoders used here utilize pulse signals, through which we evaluate their current location. Encoder of type Omron E6B2-CWZ6C (Fig. No.3) can give out 8000 falling and leading edges per one revolution, while the mean belted diameter is 71.73 mm. Therefore, in a single revolution, the rope travels 225.35 mm, and from this, we can derive that the accuracy of position tracking of the piston is 0.02817 mm. Using an AD converter we re able to determine the pressure from the pressure gauge (Fig. # 3) in range of 5MPa and with sensitivity of 5,88kPa. The manufacturer of the pressure gauge specified the accuracy of ± 1.0% FS and is it suitable for all kinds of hydraulic, or pneumatic pressure measurements, such as in wall hanging furnaces, gas furnaces, gas storages, etc. In the next step, we can calculate the force that the hydraulic fluid bestows upon the piston in units N from the known position and the value of pressure, by using the pistons surface area. Using the equation (1) we shall get the derivation work with respect to the position, where F stands for an immediate force and x for the immediate displacement of the piston. By integrating the derivation of work (2) we shall can get an actual of work cylinder in units J. (2) (1) 112
Derivation of work with respect to time, according to equation (3) we shall get power P at a given moment in the cylinder. A unit more frequently used for energy in the health sector is calorie - cal or kilocalorie - kcal. The conversion of these units follows the equation (4). In the penultimate step of themain program cycle we shall evaluate the duration of a single calculation cycle in units of ms. In the last step we shall send the data being evaluated, to communication port of microprocessor which allows us to record, process, evaluate and display these data in legible frequency (5Hz). The frequency of data acquisition is 80Hz. (3) (4) Figure no. 3 1-Encoder Omron E6B2 CWZ6C-2-pressure gauge with analog voltage output, 3-load sensor for pressure and tensile load Figure no. 4 Electronic display elements suitable for display of measured values 6. THE EVALUATION OF MEASURED DATA By processing of measured data we have obtained the following diagram. 113
5 4 3 2 1 0 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 dwdx[j] W[kcal] p[mpa] W[J] F[N] x[mm] 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 Graph. 1 Summary view of data from an isokinetic device per one cycle (stroke) 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0-500 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 dwdx[j] W[kcal] p[mpa] W[J] F[N] x[mm] Graph. 2 Summary view of data from an isokinetic device p[mpa] 5 4 3 2 1 0-1 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Graph. 3 Pressure diagram from an isokinetic device 114
0 1,509 3,023 4,533 6,023 7,5 9,007 10,523 12,035 13,554 15,074 16,587 18,104 19,602 21,079 22,586 24,118 25,661 27,199 28,733 30,27 31,811 33,338 34,821 36,306 37,839 39,389 40,936 42,486 44,032 45,583 47,136 48,686 50,233 F[N] 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0-200 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Graph. 4 Force diagram from isokinetic device x[mm] 250 200 150 100 50 0-50 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Graph. 5 Diagram of the piston s path in the cylinder during one stroke. dwdx[j] 8 6 4 2 0 Graph. 6 Derivation of work in a linear synchronous hydromotor 115
4000 W[J] 3000 2000 1000 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Graph. 7 Integrated derivation of work in a linear hydromotor 1 W[kcal] 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0-0,2 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Graph. 8 Integrated derivation of work in a linear hydromotor As displayed in the previous diagrams, a mechatronic system enables us to observe the principals of a isokinetic device for sports and medical purposes. The experiment showed significant dependence of displacement on force and velocity of motion at different setups of the flow control valve. 116
1200 F[N] 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 50 100 150 200 x[mm] Skrtenie1 Skrtenie2 Skrtenie3 Graph. 9 A function of force versus displacement at flow valve setup S1, S2 and S3 600 F[N] 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 50 100 150 x[mm] 200 Skrtenie1 Skrtenie2 Skrtenie3 Skrtenie4 Graph. 10 Function of force versus displacement at different variants and styles of exercises F[N] 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 40 80 120 160 200 x[mm] Skrtenie1 Skrtenie2 Skrtenie3 Skrtenie4 Graph. 11 Function of force versus displacement at other different variants and styles of exercises 117
We want to improve this system in the future by introducing load sensors directly to handles pulled during the exercise and transmit the measured forces by wireless transfer in real time. Load sensors in handles would also allow more precise measurement by elimination of passive losses of the system. In justified cases the load sensor may be also placed as a regular part of outgoing ropes. In diagnostics of patients or athletes it is important to get clear data without distortion caused by friction and other losses in the system. Also in measurement of displacement we observe the motion of a piston. When handles are being pulled, the rope stretches due to its elasticity which is convenient for the exercise, because the movement is sleak, and it does not cause shock and damage to muscles but it distorts the measured data. 7. ANNOTATION AND CONCLUSION In conclusion, we can give out a statement that our device is new and in Slovak and foreign markets unknown. If the device is to be developed to a product state it could significantly affect quality of fitness in professional and recreational sport rehabilitation and in medical sector in all biomechanical therapies. It can also bring new knowledge and connections in scientific research of optimization of exercise processes and their effect on development of human body that could otherwise stay hidden. This article does not claim to solve all problems, but at the end it comes down to identification of problems and providing ideas and inspiration for further development. REFERENCES [1] Gálik, P.: Výroba biokinetických mechanizmov pre medicínske a kondičné aplikácie [2] Patentový spis č. 224959, Izokinetické zariadenie pre posilňovanie a súčasnú diagnózu, 1985 Expert proofreading: Mgr. Peter Lopata, PhD., vedúci oddelenia podporného tímu, Národné športové centrum (Head of Support Team, National Sports Center) 118
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 VÝVOJ MECHATRONICKEJ NADSTAVBY PRE MEDICÍNSKE A ŠPORTOVÉ ÚČELY Ing. Jozef Pavelka Institute of manufactoring systems, environmental technology and quality management, tel.: + 421 903897826, e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Cieľom publikácie je uviesť do pozornosti výhody a možnosti posilňovania na princípe hydraulického odporu tekutín, a z izokinetického priebehu záťaže. Ako príklad pre experiment sme využili prototyp priamočiareho synchrónneho hydromotora v súlade so zámermi STU, strojníckej fakulty v nadväznosti na bakalársku a diplomovú prácu. Keywords Biokinetics, biomechatronics, medical and fitness equipments, hydraulic system, elecrtonics for medical and fitness equipmen,program control 1. ÚVOD Technický pokrok spoločnosti zapríčiňuje úbytok aktívneho pohybu, čomu sa človek nevie tak rýchlo prispôsobiť. Dôsledkom toho sú rôzne ochorenia nielen fyzické ale aj psychické. Pre zdravý vývoj človeka, hlavne mladších je veľmi dôleţité zvýšiť kvalitu telovýchovného procesu aplikovaním výsledkov vývoja a výskumu aj pomocou moderných diagnostických systémov. Veľmi dôleţitý je aj medicínsky pohľad a vyuţitie v zdravotníctve, najmä v oblasti rehabilitácie, rehabilitačnej prevencie, pre telesne oslabenú školskú mládeţ. Tento smer spadá pod názov MECHANOTERAPIA, rehabilitačné oddelenia, ale aj pre domáce účely. Ide tu o spojenie troch vedných odborov, a to medicínskeho, telovýchovného a technického s akcentom na prevádzkové podmienky so zohľadnením aspektov psychologických a mentálnych. Z praxe je známe, ţe mnohé perfektné technické riešenia cvičenci neprijmú. Určité pojmy z praxe naznačujú, ţe tento problém nemoţno podceniť. Tak napríklad vodáci a plavci 119
hovoria o cite na vodu alebo kulturisti hovoria, ţe prístroj má príjemný chod. Ide tu prevaţne o zladenie ergonómie, funkčnej anatómie, dizajnu a vhodných materiálov. Základom pre zdravý vývoj pohybového aparátu sú potrebné prirodzené pohyby, ktoré máme zakódované v našom genofonde. Tomuto zámeru vyhovuje posilňovanie v diagonálach so zaťaţením trupu a končatín. V prirodzených pohyboch sú zahrnuté cyklické pohyby, ako je beh, plávanie, skoky, vrhy, ale aj práca s kosou, sekerou, lopatou, motykou zaťaţuje celé telo. Všetky tieto pohybové štruktúry dokáţeme vytvárať pomocou popísaného prístroja. 2. POROVNANIE DRUHOV ZÁŤAŽÍ V oblasti posilňovania, kondičného tréningu, rehabilitácie, rehabilitačnej prevencie a mechanoterapie sa vyskytujú nasledovné typy záťaţí: pruţín kombinovane paralelne alebo 3. POPIS IZOKINETICKÉHO PRÍSTROJA NA BÁZE SYNCHRÓNNEHO PRIAMOČIAROVÉHO HYDROMOTORA Výhoda izokinetického zariadenia je v širokej škále moţností pouţitia. Dovoľuje nám modelovať závislosť sila dráha, sila rýchlosť v športovom tréningu, ako aj moţnosť spätnej kontroly výkonnosti pomocou hydraulického prístroja. Zariadenie môţe byť ociachované pri konštantnom škrtení v ciachovacích krivkách sila rýchlosť, čím dostaneme výkonovú charakteristiku cvičenia. V závislosti na čase dostaneme veličiny impulzu a hybnosti, čím je moţné komplexné vyhodnotenie pohybových schopností športovca. Zariadenie dokáţe uľahčiť prácu trénera a objektivizuje činnosť cvičenia. Veľkou výhodou je spoľahlivosť izokinetického prístroja na princípe hydraulického odporu, nenáročnosť na údrţbu, vysoká ţivotnosť, jednoduchosť a nízka váha. Zariadenie je vhodné na pouţitie pre vedecké účely aţ po pouţitie vo vrcholnom, výkonnostnom športe, v rehabilitačnej prevencií, a masovej telovýchove. 120
Obr č. 1 Pracovisko mechatronického systému hydrodyn 4. PATENT NA PRIEMYSELNÝ VZOR Č. 224959 A VYNÁLEZU ČÍSLO 178964 Hydraulický prístroj pozostáva zo synchrónneho priamočiareho hydromotora s priebeţnou piestnicou. V rámovej konštrukcii je zhora napojený kladkový prevod i=1:10 s výstupom k samonatáčavým kladkám. Spätný chod zabezpečujú pruţiny alebo gravitačná záťaţ. Vo valci sú obe komory prepojené cez škrtiaci ventil s obtokom. Smerom hore teda moţno nastaviť škrtenie, smerom dolu je voľný prietok (Obr.2). Na tomto prístroji od slovenského autora cvičila štátna reprezentácia v plávaní, vodáci, aj majster Európy Miroslav Rolko. Prístroj váţil 22kg, pri súpaţnom ťahu mal zdvih 1m, i=1:5 pri ťahu za jedno lano má zdvih 2m (i=1:10). Konštrukcia umoţňovala upnutie na rebriny, aj na zem. Treba podotknúť, ţe od tých čias je veľký technický pokrok najmä v oblasti mechatroniky, z toho vyplynula úloha modernizácie a rekonštrukcia starých dobrých nápadov a ich posunutie na úroveň dnešnej doby s výhľadom pre prognózy budúcnosti. Obr č. 2 Hydrodyn HP2, Patent na priemyselný vzor č. 224959 121
Rotačný encoder Elektonický tlakomer kommunikačný kanál Microprocessor Silomer Výpočtová jednotka Nadstavbový riadiaci program Visualizácia Databázové nástroje Lokálny display Elektricky ovládaný ventil Obr č. 3 Bloková schéma mechatronickéj nadstavby hydraulického aktuátora 5. POPIS FUNKCIE RIADIACEJ ELEKTRONIKY Pripojením zariadenia do USB portu počítača mikroprocesor a všetky perifériá dostanú 5V napájacie napätie. V prvom inicializačnom kroku sa nakalibruje tlakomer, a vyhodnotí sa referenčný tlak ktorý sa môţe nachádzať vo valci v kľudovom stave. Následne začne pracovať hlavý vyhodnocovací proces. V hlavnom programe sa odčíta poloha valca pomocou rotačného enkódera. Tento proces vyuţíva interapty kvôli bezpečnosti stráţenia presnej polohy. Celková poloha je pomocným programom stráţená pre prípad uvoľnenia lana, alebo keby došlo k náhodnému sklzu lana na kladke. Pouţitý enkóder vytára pulzové signály, pomocou ktorých vyhodnocujeme jeho aktuálnu polohu. Enkóder typu Omron E6B2-CWZ6C (Obr. č.3) za jednu otáčku dá celkovo 8000 dobeţných a nábeţných hrán, kde na kladke stredný priemer opásania máme 71,73 mm. Pri jednej celej otáčke lano opíše 225,35mm, z čoho vieme povedať ţe citlivosť snímania polohy máme 0,02817 mm. Pomocou AD prevodníka odčítame tlak z tlakomeru (Obr. č.3) s rozsahom 5Mpa s citlivosťou 5,88kPa. Na tlakomeri výrobca uvádza presnosť ± 1.0% a je pouţiteľný do oblastí: hydraulika, voda, pneumatika, plynové pece, plynové nádrţe, atď. Ďalej pomocou tlaku a známej plochy vypočítame silu, ktorou hydraulický olej pôsobí na piest v jednotkách N. Pomocou aplikácie rovnice (1) dostaneme deriváciu práce podľa polohy, kde F predstavuje okamţitú silu, a x okamţité posunutie piesta. Integráciou derivácie práce (2) dostaneme aktuálnu celkovú prácu valca v jednotkách J. (2) Deriváciou práce podľa času (3) dostaneme výkon v danom okamihu vo valci. (1) 122
Častejšie pouţívaná jednotka energie v zdravotníckej sfére je kalória značená ako cal, prípadne kilokalória ako kcal. Prepočet je uvedený v rovnici (4). V predposlednom kroku hlavného programového cyklu vyhodnotíme čas trvania jedného výpočtového cyklu v jednotkách ms. Ako posledný krok programu odošleme vyhodnocované údaje na komunikačný port mikroprocesora, ktoré následne môţeme nahrávať spracovať a vyhodnotiť. potrebné údaje vypíšeme aj na lokálny display (Obr. č.4) s čitateľnou frekventovanosťou (5Hz), lebo frekvenciu vyhodnocovania a spracovania údajov pouţívame 80 Hz. (3) (4) Obr č. 3 1-Enkóder Omron E6B2-CWZ6C, 2-Tlakomer s analógovým napäťovým výstupom, 3-Tenzometrický silomer na zaťaţenie ťah - tlak Obr č. 4 Elektronické zobrazovacie prvky pouţiteľné na zobrazenie nameraných veličín 6. VYHODNOTENIE NAMERANÝCH ÚDAJOV Spracovaním nameraných údajov sme sa dopracovali k nasledovným priebehom: 123
5 4 3 2 1 0 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 dwdx[j] W[kcal] p[mpa] W[J] F[N] x[mm] 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 Graf č. 1 Súhrnné zobrazenie údajov z izokinetického prístroja jedného cyklu (zdvih) 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0-500 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 dwdx[j] W[kcal] p[mpa] W[J] F[N] x[mm] Graf č. 2 Súhrnné zobrazenie údajov z izokinetického prístroja p[mpa] 5 4 3 2 1 0-1 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Graf č. 3 Zobrazenie priebehu tlaku z izokinetického prístroja 124
0 1,509 3,023 4,533 6,023 7,5 9,007 10,523 12,035 13,554 15,074 16,587 18,104 19,602 21,079 22,586 24,118 25,661 27,199 28,733 30,27 31,811 33,338 34,821 36,306 37,839 39,389 40,936 42,486 44,032 45,583 47,136 48,686 50,233 F[N] 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0-200 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Graf č. 4 Zobrazenie priebehu sily z izokinetického prístroja x[mm] 250 200 150 100 50 0-50 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Graf č. 5 Zobrazenie priebehu dráhy zdvihu piesta vo valci z prístroja dwdx[j] 8 6 4 2 0 Graf č. 6 Zobrazenie priebehu derivácie práce v priamočiarom synchrónnom hydromotore 125
4000 W[J] 3000 2000 1000 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Graf č. 7 Zobrazenie priebehu zintegrovanej derivácie práce v priamočiarom hydromotore 1 W[kcal] 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0-0,2 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Graf č. 8 Zobrazenie priebehu zintegrovanej derivácie práce v priamočiarom hydromotore Ako vidno z grafov, mechatronická nadstavba odhaľuje zákonitosti izokinetického princípu prístroja pre športové a medicínske účely. Pri experimente sa výrazne prejavil priebeh charakteristiky sily a dráhy, v závislosti na rýchlosti pohybu pri rôznych škrteniach. 126
1200 F[N] 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 50 100 150 200 x[mm] Skrtenie1 Skrtenie2 Skrtenie3 Graf č. 9 Zobrazenie priebehu charakteristiky sily a dráhy v prístroji pri škrtení š1, š2 a š3 600 F[N] 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 50 100 150 x[mm] 200 Skrtenie1 Skrtenie2 Skrtenie3 Skrtenie4 Graf č. 10 Zobrazenie charakteristiky sily a dráhy v prístroji ďalšej variante cvičenia F[N] 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 40 80 120 160 x[mm] 200 Skrtenie1 Skrtenie2 Skrtenie3 Skrtenie4 Graf č. 11 Zobrazenie priebehu sily a dráhy v prístroji znova pri inej variante cvičenia 127
Do budúcnosti chceme pripojiť do systému aj tenzometrický merací systém, kde by sme bezdrôtovo prenášali do zariadenia okamţitú hodnotu sily priamo z rukovätí, za ktoré sa ťahá pri cvičení. Pomocou tenzometrov v rukovätiach dokáţeme ociachovať prístroj odstránením pasívnych strát. V odvôvodnených prípadoch môţe byť tenzometrický silomer aj ako trvalá súčasť na výstupných lanách. Pri diagnostike pacienta aj športovca je dôleţité, aby sme namerané dáta dostali bez skreslenia údajov trením v kladkách a inými strami v systéme. Taktieţ pri meraní polohy meriame pohyb piesta, pričom cvičenec ťahá za lano, ktoré prechádza cez kladkový systém. Lano má tieţ svoju rozťaţnosť a pruţnosť, čo je v niektorých prípadoch výhoda, nestrháva sval, ale pri meraní skresľuje údaje. 7. ANOTÁCIA A ZÁVER Na záver môţeme skonštatovať, ţe na slovenskom trhu a aj vo svete je navrhované usporiadanie nové a na Slovensku aj neznáme, aj nepouţívané. Ak uvedený systém rozpracujeme do konkrétnych úloh technického rozvoja, môţeme výrazne ovplyvniť kvalitu telovýchovného procesu vo vrcholovom, výkonnostnom a masovom športe, ako aj v medicínskej oblasti, osobitne v rehabilitácií, rehabilitačnej prevencií a súhrnne v mechanoterápií. Vo vedeckom skúmaní optimalizácie telovýchovných procesov môţeme odhaliť zaujímavé závislosti v komplexnom rozvoji človeka, na ktoré by sme inak neprišli. Tento článok si nenárokuje vyriešenie všetkých problémov, ale hlavne ide o pomenovanie problémov, a vytvorenie námetov pre ďalší vývoj. LITERATÚTA [1] Gálik, P.: Výroba biokinetických mechanizmov pre medicínske a kondičné aplikácie [2] Patentový spis č. 224959, Izokinetické zariadenie pre posilňovanie a súčasnú diagnózu, 1985 Odborná korektúra: Mgr. Peter Lopata, PhD., vedúci oddelenia podporného tímu, Národné športové centrum 128
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 MECHATRONICKÉ ASPEKTY RIADENIAAUTOMATIZOVANEJ STOCHASTICKEJ STROJÁRSKEJ VÝROBNEJ ZOSTAVY Ing. Angel Pavlov, CSc Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Slovak University of Technology Nám. slobody 17, 812 31 Bratislava, Slovakia Prof. Ivan Andonov TU Sofia, Bulgaria Abstract The cutting conditions of basic working regimes (minimum machining cost, maximum productivity, maximum profit and minimum tools requirements) can be calculated in advance. When a break-down occurs, it is possible to calculate in real time adaptive conditions eliminating losses from the break-down and finally to restore the balance of the manufacturing system Presented mathematical model by means of variations in cutting conditions, makes it possible to keep the manufacturing configuration in balance, both from the production capacity and production plan point of view. Keywords stable working regimes, break down, adaptive control, optimalization, cutting conditions, manufacturing system, production plan and production capacity. Mechatronika v súčasnosti poukazuje na nový prístup k riešeniu rôznych konštrukčných, technologických riadiacich a zloţitých inţiniero technických úloh. Badať rozdielne postoje k obsahu pojmu mechatronika a mnohými autormi uvádzané definície sa vzhľadom na ich odbornosť viac alebo menej rôznia. Pre demonštráciu uvediem len dve z mnoţstva definícií uvedených v [2], ktoré z hľadiska automatizovaných výrobných systémov sa zdajú byť najvýstiţnejšie : Mechatronika je návrh a realizácia výroby výrobkov a systémov, ktoré majú tak mechanickú funkčnosť, ako aj integrované algoritmické riadenie. 129
Mechatronika je komplex prostriedkov a princípov mechaniky, elektroniky, riadiacej techniky a informatiky, syntéza súčasných technológií efektívne pouţitých na dosiahnutie ţelaného cieľa. Z hľadiska inej definície ( Mechatronika je postoj alebo filozofia, ktorá spája mnoho disciplín do nedeliteľného celku s cieľom priblíţiť sa k rozlúšteniu problému ; je to tímová práca, do ktorej sú zapojení strojní, elektronickí a softveroví inţinieri spoločne s personálom všetkých oddelení podniku, výskumného ústavu ; celá ich činnosť smeruje k optimálnemu riešeniu produktu s veľmi rôznorodou klasifikáciou problémov ; mechatronika nie je veda alebo technológia. ) moţno aj riešenie uvedené v [4] povaţovať za mechatronický systém. Nejednoznačnosť definície pojmu mechatronika je formulovaná v [2] aj takto : Pojem mechatronika...sa často stotoţňuje s pojmom systémové inţinierstvo t.j. mechatronika je kompiláciou mechanických, elektrických / elektronických a riadiacich metód a prostriedkov v staršej terminológii komplexná automatizácia ; tento pojem ako filozofická kategória reprezentoval tak metódy a prostriedky automatického riadenia. V zmysle uvedeného potom moţno chápať riadenie automatizovanej strojarskej výrobnej zostavy ako mechatronický systém. Ďalej uvediem nové princípy riadenia takejto automatizovanej výrobnej zostavy so stochastickou povahou. Strojárska výroba sa vo všeobecnosti riadi potrebami ľudskej spoločnosti a formálnymi, prírodnými a ekonomickými zákonmi výroby. Základný zákon strojárskej výroby, ako je to aj v ţivej prírode, je preţiť. Pritom prioritná cieľová funkcia je dosiahnuť maximálny a dlhodobý zisk pri ochrane ţivotného prostredia a zabezpečenia komplexnej kvality t.j. nielen výrobku, ale aj servisu, opravy a likvidácie [5]. Pre danú skupinu výrobkov (súčiastky) navrhujeme technologický proces pre výrobnú zostavu tak, aby vzhľadom na existujúce podmienky pracovala v optimálnom reţime. Optimálny reţim bude závisieť od volenej cieľovej funkcie. Výrobnú zostavu navrhujeme zo zariadenia a strojov, nástrojov a prípravkov, riadiacich, meracích, diagnostických a kontrolných systémov, ktoré sú k dispozícii pre výrobu. Skupina výrobkov a ich dodacie lehoty sú výsledkom marketingu. Všetky tri faktory (kapacita výrobnej zostavy, poţadované mnoţstvo výrobkov a dodacie lehoty) majú byť v rovnováhe. Predpokladáme automatické riadenie výrobnej zostavy, ktoré zabezpečuje aj rovnováţny stav. Riadenie stochastickej strojárskej výroby v tom zmysle znamená určiť spôsob a prostriedky výroby v súlade s časovým plánom odvodu výrobkov a regulovať skutočný priebeh výrobného procesu tak, aby odchýlky od plánu boli minimálne. Ideálny prípad je ak kapacita výrobnej zostavy je plne vyuţitá, výrobné termíny dodrţané a výrobné náklady minimalizované. Súčasné riešenia návrhu optimálneho technologického postupu pre jednu súčiastku a výrobnú zostavu sú riešenia chybné, technologické procesy moţno navrhovať len v súčinnosti s kapacitným plánovaním. Matematické modely a zodpovedajúce programové vybavenie umoţňujú okrem priameho výsledku (výpočtu optimálneho parametra z hľadiska volenej cieľovej funkcie) sekundárne určiť vplyv celého radu technologických a ekonomických (vstupných) parametrov na náklady a produktivitu obrábania, na spotrebu nástrojov, zisku atď. Moţno určiť vplyv koncentrácie a 130
diferenciácie úkonov, konfigurácie výrobnej zostavy, zmeny rezného materiálu a vlastností polovýrobku, cenovej a mzdovej hladiny, nestability meny a inflácie atď. na náklady a produktivitu obrábania. Takúto moţnosť poskytujú predovšetkým vstupné technologické a ekonomické parametre matematických modelov, vyjadrované rôznymi matematickými závislosťami a štatistickými modelmi. Pouţitím rôznych pomocných podprogramov vieme pre danú výrobnú konfiguráciu a výrobné podmienky, pre danú kombináciu, obrábaný a rezný materiál vyjadriť vplyvy zvoleného parametra na volenú cieľovú funkciu Vzhľadom na stochastickú povahu strojárskej výroby plánovaný priebeh automatizovanej výroby môţe byť narušený poruchami. Za poruchu (nielen technickú) povaţujeme kaţdú odchýlku podmienok výroby od podmienok uvaţovaných pri zostavovaní plánu alebo navrhovaní výroby. Technické poruchy (stroja, riadiaceho systému, nástrojového a upínacieho vybavenia, systému kontroly kvality a podobne) majú za následok dočasné zníţenie výrobnej kapacity. Prostriedky na ich identifikácie a kvantifikácie sú všeobecne známe [1], [3]. Registrujeme však aj iné ako technické poruchy, napr. operatívne zmeny v plánovanom mnoţstve odvodu výrobkov. prostriedkami a metódami mechatroniky vieme presne všetky tieto poruchy identifikovať, sklzy v plánovanom mnoţstve výrobkov kvantifikovať, následne eliminovať a znova doviesť výrobný systém do rovnováţneho stavu. V určitých prípadoch sklzy moţno odstrániť zmenou technologických parametrov (napr. zvýšením reznej rýchlosti ), čo však má vplyv na spotrebu nástrojov. Ak má porucha za následok zníţenie výrobnosti výrobnej zostavy (napr. zníţenie plánovaného mnoţstva výrobkov, prebratie časti práce iným strojom a pod.), rovnováhu môţeme zabezpečiť niţšími reznými podmienkami. Na všetky poruchy, vzniknuté potreby a vyvolané zmeny treba reagovať v reálnom čase. Naznačené stavy poukazujú na význam a potrebu pouţitia kvalitného mechatronického systému v automatizovanej strojárskej stochastickej výrobe. Model riadenia takej výrobnej zostavy umoţní vypracovať ihneď nový operatívny plán zodpovedajúci okamţitým podmienkam a potrebám výroby. Kým na zostavenie pôvodnej úlohy zvyčajne je k dispozícii niekoľko dní, nový plán pre zmenené podmienky výroby má byť k dispozícii prakticky hneď po vzniku poruchy. Nové pracovné podmienky majú obnoviť rovnováhu medzi výrobnou kapacitou a poţiadavkami na výrobu. Výrobný systém z hľadiska pouţitej cieľovej funkcie môţe pracovať v jednom z týchto optimálnych pracovných reţimov : reţim min. nákladov na obrábanie, reţim max. produktivity, reţim minimálnej spotreby nástrojov a reţim max. zisku, ktoré vieme vopred zadefinovať a ešte v predvýrobnej etape vypočítať aj ich pracovné parametre. Pracovné parametre optimalizované z hľadiska nákladov na obrábanie, zodpovedajú pracovnému reţimu, ktorý označíme ako základný. Kritériá pre voľbu pracovných reţimov budú závisieť od pomeru výrobnej kapacity, ktorá je k dispozícii v danom časovom intervale a ktorá je potrebná na splnenie poţiadaviek kladených na výrobu : Ak výrobná kapacita a poţiadavky na výrobu sú v rovnováhe za ukazovateľ optimálnosti volíme minimálne náklady na obrábanie výrobná zostava pracuje v reţime minimálnych nákladov na obrábanie. 131
Výrobná kapacita, ktorá je k dispozícii a ktorá je potrebná na splnenie plánovaných úloh, nie sú v rovnováhe a je značný nedostatok výrobnej kapacity (napr. nečakané zvýšenie poţiadavky trhu, vojnový stav, atď...). Volíme reţim maximálnej produktivity. Znova nerovnováţny stav, ale zapríčinený nadbytkom výrobnej kapacity. Volíme reţim minimálnej spotreby nástrojov. Tento reţim moţno voliť aj v prípade nedostatku alebo extrémne drahých nástrojov. Kaţdý iný reţim, ktorý bude naštartovaný počas výroby a ktorý má eliminovať straty vzniknuté poruchou a v konečnom dôsledku dovedie výrobný systém do rovnováţneho stavu moţno označiť ako adaptívny. Praktické vyuţitie mechatronického systému v automatizovanej diskrétnej strojárskej výrobe vyţaduje mať (najmä pre potreby riadiaceho systému) k dispozícii banky údajov technologických a ekonomických parametrov. LITERATÚRA [1] ANDONOV, I. : Modelirane na procesa na riazane, TU Sofia, Bulharsko, 1997 [2] JAVORČÍK, L. KOLLÁTH, Ľ. : Mechanické aspekty konštrukcie výrobnej techniky. International Symposium Mechatronika 98, Kočovce, 1998, s. 15-18. [3] VLNKA, J. a kol.. : Ultrazvukové snímače vo výrobných systémoch. INTERULTRASONIC 94, STU Bratislava 1994, s. 151-160. [4] SOUČEK, J. ZONGOR, J. : Návrh a realizácia INKUBÁTORA 1 a pomocných zariadení na testovanie funkčnej spôsobilosti. Zborník SAV Kozmická biológia. Gravitačná fyziológia. Košice, 1984, s. 221-225. [5] BORATIŇSKA, A., GAWLIK, J. : Metodologiczna konsepcja prognozowania kosztow jakošci. In.: II Ogolnopolska konferencia naukova. Problemy jakošci stymulatorem 132
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 EXPERIMENTAL LASER-BEAM SCANNER EQUIPMENT FOR 3D SURFACE MAPPING AND RECONSTRUCTION Dr. Ing. Jiří Přibil and Ing. Tomáš Dermek Institute of Measurement Science, SAS, Bratislava, Slovakia tel.: +421 2 54775943, e-mail: {umerprib,umerderm}@savba.sk Abstract The paper describes the present status of development of the experimental laser-beam scanner for mapping and reconstruction of 3D object surfaces. The image reconstruction from projections based on perspective imaging techniques as well as the triangulation method of the light spot 3D projection using the laser/camera pair is there discussed. The applicability of the used reconstruction methods was successfully verified on the test phantom objects. Keywords Laser-beam scanner, 3D positional system, image reconstruction, Radon perspective projection, light spot projection for surface reconstruction. 1 INTRODUCTION The proposed laser scanner system comprises a device for non destructive testing method able to evaluate the inner structure and the three-dimensional (3D) surfaces of investigated objects. There is big similarity with the x-ray computer tomography (X-CT) systems [1, 2], first of all in the methods used for image reconstruction from projections. On the other hand, in difference of X-CT system when the x-ray photons are transmitted through the evaluated object, there the laser beam is reflected from the object surface in this case. For both these methods holds, that the source/detector pair is rotated by a small angle and movement and following projection data are collected for next processing. This paper reports current status on the development of a portable experimental laserbeam scanner which can work in modes as and 3D scanner, when the sample is reposed and the laser/camera pair is rotating and moved around the sample, or in the classical scanner mode, when is realized the linear movement of laser beam only (sample and camera are in the same distance without any movement). The equipment is described and discussed below, 133
including its mechanical parts, laser source, and CCD/CMOS detection system. The theoretical part of the papers is focused on the image reconstruction from projections based on perspective imaging technique as well as the 3D surface mapping using the triangulation method of the light spot projection. Finally, the applicability of both image reconstruction methods was verified and compared on the test phantom objects. 2 THEORY OF IMAGE RECONSTRUCTION There are many different methods used for image reconstruction from projections filtered back-projection (FBP) [1, 3, 4]. The basic one is based on Radon transform. From the setup geometry point of view, two different arrangements are possible to realize in our system: parallel beam (see Fig. 1a) and fan beam with equidistant realization of detectors (Fig. 1b). f(x,y) y y x x x R (x ) Fig. 1 Basic arrangements for different types of projection (left), geometry of Radon transform (right). Geometry of Radon transform is illustrated by the scheme in right part of Fig. 1. The Radon function computes projections of an image matrix along specified direction [1]. Projection of two-dimensional (2D) function f (x, y) is a set of line integrals. In general, the Radon transform of f (x, y) along angle is line integral of f (x, y) parallel to y axis x f x cos y sin, x sin y cos R dy (1) where θ is the angle of particular projection. 2D dependence of R ( x) is also called a sinogram because points are transformed to sine waves. In our case, we have the opposite situation, where we look for f (x, y) function (or slice of testing object) from a known or measured sinogram. Filtered back-projection can be expressed by the following equation x, y qxcos ysin, d, f (2) 0 where q is a 2D function of filtered projections using Ram-Lak, Shepp-Logan, Hann, Hamming and cosine filters. The fan-type projections must be rebinned and interpolated to parallel-type before applying back projection algorithm. It follows from the figure geometry that for any ray Rsin and consequently r p Rsin. (3) 134
In difference of well know scanning principle documented in [5], our second image reconstruction approach is based on the triangulation method of the light spot projection [6]. The basic idea and 2D arrangement can be described by the scheme in Fig. 3a the triangulation in the three dimensions is illustrated in Fig. 3b. a) b) Fig. 2 Basic arrangement and dimension for 2D triangulation using the light spot projection technique (a), triangulation in the three dimension (b). The angle α and base distance b is given by the calibration [7]. The angle β is defined by the projection geometry where γ = π - (α + β) and sin (π - γ) = sin γ using (4) we obtain (4) Hence the distance d is given by ( ) ( ) (5) ( ) (6) The location of scanned point P can expressed in Cartesian coordinates as This point P with coordinates X, Y, Z is described in the image plane as p = (x, y). Using the previous equations, the real coordinated of point P can be calculated as (7) (8) Using coordinates of P (X, Y, Z), the distance d from the projection centre O (x, y, f) can be finally determined ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (9) 135
3 DESCRIPTION OF CONSTRUCTION OF THE WHOLE LASER SCANNER EQUIPMENT The experimental laser-based equipment for 3D mapping and surface reconstruction can be operated in two modes: 1. 3D surface mapping with full 360 degree rotation of the laser/camera pair is rotating and moved around the sample using the Radon reconstruction technique from the taken video sequence, 2. classical one-dimensional scanning, when only the linear movement of laser beam is performed (testing sample and picture streaming the CCD web camera are without any movement). This developed laser-beam scanner equipment consists of: in-line laser source modules with a beam focusing and sharpening optics: green with = 532nm and red one working with = 650 nm (both with power output of 5 mw) and 1 W blue power laser emitting the light with = 445 nm, the CCD/CMOS cameras with lend/objective for taken of images or a video sequences during the scanning sequence, the measured sample positional system (for movement in x axis and rotation) [8], distributed controller units (Atmel, Microcon) for parallel control of all working components (laser source, scanner, positional system and camera) connected via USB line see the principal block scheme in Fig. 3a, the main PC (notebook) for control of performed laser experiments connected via LAN network see the overview photo in Fig. 3b. Achieved position resolution of developed laser scanner system amount to 0.1 mm in x axis, minimum rotation angle was 1 degree. Withal the investigated object can rotate in full interval of 0 360 degrees with the 15 degrees overlapping [8]. Manually adjustable position (distance) between cameras and laser samples in the y-axis lies in the range of 3 16 cm. The laser scanner equipment can use two types of sensing cameras (see detailed parameters comparison in Table. 1): a) the high speed and high sensitivity CMOS camera QHY5 using the 1/2inch imager chip (originally designed for scanning objects in the sky telescope), coupled with the 2.8-12mm zoom lens or lens with fixed focus of 2.5 mm, connected to a PC/laptop via USB/LAN interface; the camera supports reading out non-compressed video. b) The compact CCD color web camera Logitech C270 HD (working with 720p video resolution) with integrated a microphone, and lens fixed focal length of 4 mm; high speed USB 2.0 connection to a control computer. 136
a) b) Controller and supply Linear movement Vertical setting Samples Power line laser Rotation of laser/camera Gear 10:1 Fig. 3 Block Stepping motor CCD camera Servomotor Controller and supply USB supply Controller and supply Main coimputer USB interface diagram of control and supply of the proposed experimental laser scanner system (a), overall photo of this device including the main control computer (b). Table 1: Parameters of used cameras in the developed laser-beam scanner. Logitech C270 HD QHY5-II + zoom lens Camera parameter Connection type USB 2.0 High Speed USB/LAN Sensor type CCD (colour) CMOS (monochromatic) Full resolution [pixels] 1280*960 1280*1024 Maximum speed [fps] 30 320 Pixel size *µm+ 2.8 5.6 On the side of positional system of the laser scanner, the software realization consists of a service program for microcontroller Atmel ATtiny 2313 (in assembler) and a control program package for the main computer (in Borland Delphi or Microsoft Visual C++ for Windows XP platform) see the main dialog window in Fig. 4. For low-level commands to the stepping motor unit, the commercial version of stepper motor controller CD30x with micro-stepping function was used. This type of universal programmable control automat with limited number of user inputs and outputs, and the special programming language and software must be used. The serial communication between operating stepping drive module and main control computer runs asynchronously in the frame of RS232 standard using the master-slave method. The PC (master) sends commands including the parameters to the ATtiny (slave), which confirm received request and subsequently start execution of the command. For physical connection, the USB-to-Serial converter (UAS111 from the Gembrid company) was 137
practically used. In the main computer the Virtual Com Port (VCP) called as a standard serial port COMX: is subsequently created and used for communication and the scanning process control [8]. Fig. 4 Main dialog window of the distributed positional system control application. 4 EXPERIMENTS WITH IMAGE RECONSTRUCTION In the case of the first operating mode, the reflected beam is sensed by the CMOS camera joined with a zoom objective and the main control computer is recording the transmitted video. After that the off-line extraction image queue is realized and complete object reconstruction using the FBP approach based on Radon transform is performed. The whole scanning and reconstruction process runs in five phases: manual adjusting of optical system of the CMOS camera (focusing and sharpening to the tested sample); setting number of projection (an angle step for rotation), and the linear movement step, scanning tested object with rotation of the camera/laser pair and linear movement in x- axis, direct storing video stream from the camera for next processing, selection of images from the recorded video, determination of a binary mask of the spectral density for setting of the object position in the frame of an image, masking the each of processed image, calculation the sonogram (Radon transform of the object), storing to the 2D matrix for next visualization, projection filtering (using Hamming filter), and final back-projection, creating of 2D slices of the scanned object for all processed projections see a documentary example in Fig. 5. In the linear scanner mode, the 3D triangulation of the light spot projection method is applied. The 3D surface mapping process consists of the following steps: calibration of the optical camera-laser system without a scanned object using a special background grid see example of their use in Fig. 6, 138
Relative occurrence [%] Relative occurrence [%] scanning tested object with moved laser line and taking-up pictures (from video stream of the CCD camera) and direct storing of them for next processing, selecting the region-of-interest (ROI) area from the whole sensed image, determination of laser line from the pictures, after image tresholding and smoothing, recalculated to the x, y coordinates for 2D plot of all determined laser contours as documents detailed example of surface processing of a sea scallop object in Fig. 7, final reconstruction of surface including the filling of a texture and 3D visualization see resulting images in Fig. 8. For the camera calibration a matrix of points, chessboard image are usually applied. There exist lot of different techniques how to determine the cameras internal parameters (focus distance, matrix of lens distortion, pixels error, etc.). Because the whole image and object surface reconstruction is running in the Matlab program system (using the version of 2010b), so the easy way it was to use the Camera Calibration Toolbox for Matlab (CCT) [9]. For image processing during reconstruction process, the elementary basic functions of the Image Processing Tool Box were also used. Original Image Original Image test3-0 22.jpg: Rezpozic=425 Mask of Spectral Mask Density of Spectral Density Masked Image Masked Image Matrix Matrix of 42 of Cuts 42 Cuts on position on position [425] [425] Image Image of Reconstruction of 100 200 300 400 500 600 100 100 100 100 100 200 200 200 200 200 300 300 300 300 300 400 400 400 400 400 500 500 500 500 500 600 600 600 600 600 600 200 400 200600 400 100 200 800 600 300 800 500 800 200 400 200600 400800 600 800 400 700 100 200 300 400 500 10 20 30 40 10 20 30 40 100 100 200 200 300 300 400 400 500 500 600 200 400 200600 400800 600200 200 800400 400600 600800 800 100 100 200 200 300 300 400 400 500 500 15 10 15 10 Fig. Histogram 5 Demonstration of Image values of image reconstruction Diffrential using valuesdiffrential the FPB values parallel beam projection method: image taken 15 15 from the CCD Max=255 camera Max=255 with the marked line at position of y=425 (a), determined mask of the spectral density (b), Treshold=100 Treshold=100 10 10 masked image (c), calculated 2D matrix with a sinogram (d), finally reconstructed image of 42 projections (e). Histogram of Image values 5 5 5 5 0 0 0 0-5 -10-5 -10-5 -5-15 -15 0 50 0 100 50 150100 200150 250200 300250 300 0 50 0 100 50 150100 200150 250200 300250 300 Image Data Values Image [-] Data Values [-] Fig. 6 Example of the special background images for the camera calibration process using the CCT. 139
Fig. 7 Demonstration of the first phase of image processing using the light spot projection method: original image of a sea scallop with the scanning blue laser line (a), determined laser contour after image tresholding and smoothing recalculated to the x, y coordinates (b), 2D plot of all determined laser contours (c). Fig. 8 Results of the 3D surface reconstruction phase: plot of all laser contours of scanned of a sea scallop in the 3D space (a), reconstructed 3D surface after the rendering operation (b), final 3D plot reconstructed surface with added texture from the original image (c). 5 CONCLUSIONS Application of developed laser-beam scanner equipment is focused mainly to the area of a material research, first of all for the thin layers structure analysis in comparison with methods based on the nuclear magnetic resonance imaging [10]. It is also used in the pedagogical process, for diploma thesis oriented to the image reconstruction [11] and surface mapping [12, 13]. Developed and implemented image reconstruction techniques based on perspective imaging was experimentally verified on testing phantoms and also practically implemented for processing images of real test objects. While the positional part of the scanner and the image taking or video recording from camera works in the real-time, the image processing including the 3D surface reconstruction have relatively the high computational complexity. Using the UltraBook with configuration of processor Intel(R) Intel i5-4200u at 2.30 GHz, 8 GB RAM, and Windows 8.1., the detailed analysis of computational complexity shows that the current software realization (in the Matlab environment) of the image reconstruction from projections process and/or the 3D surface mapping lasts more than 30 second (in dependence on chosen initial parameters) and thus this processing must be run off-line. It is assumed that after optimization and implementation in a higher programming language such as C++, C #, or Java, the real-time processing will be available. 140
ACKNOWLEDGMENT The financial support by the Science and Technology Assistance Agency, project no. APVV-15-0029 was gratefully acknowledged. REFERENCES [1] Kak, C., Slaney, M.: Principles of computerized tomographic imaging. IEEE Press, New York 1988, ISBN 0-87942498-3. [2] Jakůbek, J.: Data processing and image reconstruction methods for pixel detectors. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment. Vol. 576, Is. 1, pp. 223-234, 2007, June 2007. [3] Juráš, V.: Image reconstruction methods with application of the perspective imaging techniques. Research report. IMS SAS Bratislava, March 2006, (in Slovak). [4] Jan, J.: Medical Image Processing, Reconstruction and Restoration: Concepts and Methods, Taylor & Francis Group 2006, ISBN 0-8247-5849-8. [5] Winkelbach, S., Molkenstruck, S., Wahl, F.M.: Low-Cost Laser Range Scanner and Fast Surface Registration Approach. In K. Franke et al. (Eds.): DAGM 2006, LNCS 4174, pp. 718 728, 2006, Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2006. [6] Jahne, B., Haussecker, H., Geissler, P.: Handbook of computer vision and applications. London: Academic Press, 1999, ISBN 0 12 379771-3. [7] Forest, J.: New methods for triangulation-based shape acquisition using laser scanners. Doctoral Thesis. Universitat de Girona, 2004. [8] Přibil, J. et. al.: Automated Positional Unit of Testing X-ray CT Mini System. In Proceedings of the 7 th International Conference Applied Electronics 2007, pp. 163-166, Pilsen 2007. [9] Bouguet, J-Y.: Camera Calibration Toolbox for Matlab. On-line documentation. Retrieved March 18, 2015, from http://www.vision.caltech.edu/bouguetj/calib_doc [10] Frollo, I., Andris, P., Přibil, J., Juráš, V.: Indirect susceptibility mapping of thin-layer samples using nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, IEEE Transactions on Magnetics Vol. 43, Iss. 8, pp. 3363-3367, 2007. [11] Mladý, P.: Reconstruction x-ray images from projection based on the filtered backprojection method. MSc Thesis, University of Ţilina, Ţilina 2011 (in Slovak). [12] Sadloňová, S.: Surface mapping using the 3D laser scanner. MSc Thesis, University of Ţilina, Ţilina 2015 (in Slovak). [13] Švantner, F.: 3D surface reconstruction of objects pappen in the laser scanner. MSc Thesis, University of Ţilina, Ţilina 2016 (in Slovak). Specialist proofreading by Doc. Ing. Miroslav Kamenský, PhD. 2016. 141
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 CHECKING OF TIPS OF WELDING ELECTRODES BY USING VISUALIZATION IN ROBOTOCS Abstract Marián TOLNAY, Michal BACHRATÝ, Marian KRÁLIK, Ján VLNKA [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] This article discusses the use of machine optical vision in the control of tip of welding electrodes for resistance spot welding. The aim of the research was carried out to design a fully functioning device for the assessment of immediate functional area of dimensional quality welding tip using the visualization process. The main objective of this work was the proposal of sensing device which satisfies the conditions of functionality, high precision, rapid assessment, reliability, minimum dimensions, production costs and maintenance costs. The launch of the device is the ability to reach a comprehensive solution in production, such as planning the appropriate exchange of tips electrodes, evaluation of area before and after renovation. The output is to ensure a longer lifetime of tips thereby reducing production costs. Keywords welding electrodes, visualization, surface quality, CCTV 1. INTRODUCTION The issue of automatic exchange of tips of electrodes for welding heads is still relevant today in terms of economic efficiency resistance spot welding operations with industrial robots. Due to the need of renovation and its frequent mechanical replacement, the lifetime of the electrode surfaces is limited. Differences between new, worn and restored tip are shown in Figure 1. The new tip is characterized by a glossy surface and symmetrically rounded work surface with a smooth transition from spherical to cylindrical surface. The desktop of the worn tip has a dirty and deformed functional - contact surface caused by welded material. Noticeable notches on the sides of the tip of the Fig.1C are created by the dismantling of the plant. After renovation milling the tip has traces of chip roughing, glossy surface after finishing of a slight change in surface from the original starting shape. Rounded upper part is slightly skewed, which does not affect the quality of welded joints, because the shape and size of the area is preserved. 142
143
Figure 1 Welding electrodes [6] tips comparison: a) new, b) worn, c) restored selected by setting the renovation of the basic technological parameters of welding, a pair of materials and the machined mechanical operations, the type and quality of material of tips of welding heads, possibly affecting weld using sealants and adhesives in the vicinity of welds. At present renovating contact surfaces of the electrodes of robotic heads is controlled by preselected mode as defined by the number of spot welds made by operators in robotic technology workplace. Today the principle of the routine program of tip renovation performs regular cycle of maintenance work of worn tip surfaces after the chosen number of operations regardless of its real wear. In terms of quality of welded joints welding tips are often exchanged prior to their life cycle is reached only because of planned maintenance. The aim of the research conducted by the authors of this work was to propose a method for sensing the real state of the tips of welding electrodes and subsequently to design and implement a device that is capable of real-time evaluation of the state of the contact surface of the electrode tip. 2. METHODOLOGY,APPARATUS, MEASUREMENTS, RESULTS Research conducted at the authors aimed to ensure high quality welding tip as one of the most important factors for quality and consistent spot welds. The proposal method was to suitable, easily and effectively monitor and ensure the proper tips exchange, the treatment of working desktop, to maximize the number of welding cycles, while observing high quality weld. Own solution consists of a theoretical design of the sensing device in several design versions. Option 1 The most important endpoint is the tip electrode contact area through which electrical current flows. Sensing geometry of a surface is protected by CCTV brand Guppy F- 033 B / C (Fig. 2) oriented parallel to the surface of the welding tip. 144
Figure 2 Showing sensing methods of welding tip geometry - version No.1 Figure 2b is a realistic 3D view of a tip through sensing camera is parallel to the flat tip (Figure 2c). Figure 2d resulting graph showing the red segment, from which it is possible to calculate the average wear or retrofitted area. The advantages of this option lie in simplicity and such that when shooting of tip geometry only one camera is required. The proposed variant allows you to shoot first bottom electrode tip and after capturing the welding head rotates 180 degrees and sensing is repeated for the upper tip. The second option is to capture both tips at the same time by controlled clamping of the electrodes arms. The disadvantage is the lack of a constant distance between the tip and the sensed sensing device. Tip wear is not always constant (symmetrical). This non uniform wear influences the final processing of the scanned tip that will not be correct, because shooting from another camera view tip will be worn differently, which would cause the outcome to be always different. This applies equally to tip wear in the form of holes on the welding area. In the side shooting it is problematic to determine whether it is an ideal flat surface or in a cavity therein. Option 2 is implemented by camera, which scans the surface of the tip face (Fig. 3a) and real 3D image shot with the camera (Fig. 3b). On Figure 3c is the result of record from the camera. Fig. 3d is highlighted by the red circle to the diameter of the worn surfaces evaluated. The scanned area is in this case more accurate than in option 1 as it is scanned and evaluated directly from the record and not indirectly via size in conversion-line. This method allows displaying the area of the tip generated by the program easier and more accurate than the subsequent recovery. The disadvantage is that the distance between two opposing tips there is a limit to expansion of arms of the electrodes of the welding head. It follows a small, insufficient distance for the direct placement of cameras between the jaws. In order to capture the surfaces of the two tips is therefore necessary to use an image by a series of fold mirrors, which represents a lot simpler design variants. Figure 3: Showing sensing methods of welding tip geometry - version No.2 Option 3 is principally a copy of option 2, but changing the sensing device of the classic industrial camera to a device equipped with a camera autofocus lens mechanism (Fig. 4). The advantage is the auto-focus of image, which can be used in measuring the varying length of the lens - a flat tip. Implementation of the calculation takes place due to the ratio of the outer diameter of the tip and the tip of the circular area (Fig. 4b). The outer diameter of the tip surface is fixed; circular surface tip varies due to wear. Created a methodology based on the 145
establishment of the maximum permissible ratio between the outer diameter and a circular flat tip electrode. Ratio varies according to the circular region of the tip which means that during the scan of the area of the tip from different distances, the resulting ratio will always be precisely evaluated. When shooting both tips of the jaws at the same time for reasons of space it is required to use a system of mirrors to repel / refractive scanned image. Disadvantage occurs at a greater distance between the lens and the area of the tip, because the intensity of the incident light may be small. The downside is when inappropriate focus range. Figure 4 Example of industrial camera with autofocus lens from SENTECH STC-AF133A [4] Option 4 - scanning the surface of the tip electrode is implemented by contactless laser scanning functional surfaces of the electrode by sensing device Absolute Tracker AT901 of LEICA, in combination with a handheld laser scanner T-Scan TS50. Leica Tracker provides high accuracy, resolution and can scan a wide range of different types of surfaces without powdering. Fig. 5 shows the results of a new 3D surface scanning tip welding electrodes and on Fig. 5b the final result consisting of the sum of the individual partial scans can be seen. Using this option the tip surface calculation is lengthy, complicated and the equipment is financially the most demanding of all the previous options. Figure 5 Showing sensing methods of welding tip geometry - version No.4 3. CONCLUSION The paper briefly describes four proposed methods of tip geometry sensing. The first three options are using to capture by industrial cameras - tips are detected visually. Fourth option uses non-contact 3D laser surface scanning of the tip. Option 1 represents a simple design implementation, but the accuracy of the shooting is poor. Good starting point is therefore option 2, which satisfies the necessary requirements for reasonably accurate and efficient sensing methodology. Although it is structurally more complex it provides more accurate sensing and evaluation. Option 3 is similar to Option 2, but requires higher investment demands. Option 4 represents contactless 3D laser surface scanning, which is very costly therefore it can fulfill the function of the standard. For industrial practice the most appropriate solution appears to be Option 2. In this follow-up is the result of designed and 146
developed evaluation program in an NI Vision Builder (Fig. 6). Functional operation is provided by controller NI CVS-1454 manufactured by company National Instruments into which a proposed program of NI Vision Builder is loaded. On the picture below there is a print screen of NI Vision Builder window that shows an image taken with an industrial camera, toolbar for image processing and the program sequence. The red frame shows the images created by using industrial cameras. The green frame shows in individual tabs the most widely used tools for image processing consequently offers the possibility to create your own custom made toolbar. Turquoise frame represents tools that are configured for image processing and evaluation of results. In order to achieve a successful evaluation, each individual operation must be compliant otherwise an error will occur. This can be further configured as to what action to take after the event has occurred. Large green rectangle with the word 'OK' on the top right of the image is the result of image processing program. Figure 6 Showing the working environment of the program Vision Builder with successful image processing 147
Designed model of the measuring device (Figure 7) is a 3D concept of sensing device (Option 2) comprising of: - industrial camera GUPPY F-033 B / C with manual lens Tamron 23FM16SP - a series of polished flat mirrors (providing picture angle of refraction of 45 degrees) - high-power LED lighting with stand - rack for defining the position of the tip - plastic cover The control unit of machine vision NI CVS-1454 with the established program for the evaluation process of shooting is needed during its operation and individual performance of this equipment. Figure 7 showing a 3D model for recording and evaluation of the surface of both tips of welding heads The sensing device assembly equipped with Guppy F-033 B/C camera that has a manual focus lens Tamron 23FM16SP and LED illumination of electrode tips is shown on the Figure 7. As you can see there are two polished mirrors assigned for light refraction. The run of this experimental device provides controller CVS-1454 manufactured by National Instruments which executes program developed in NI Vision Builder environment. With regard to the positive results and low cost indicators the device is ready to be applied in production. This paper was elaborated under the VEGA MS SR nr. 1/0670/15 148
REFERENCES [1] KYOKUTOH CO.,LTD.: Dresser option. [online]. [cit.03. 02.2013]. Available at <http://www.kyokutoh.com/html_en/product05.html> [2] AF133A [online]. [cit. 15. 04. 2013]. Available at http://www. sentechamerica.com/camerasautofocushd/stc-af133a.aspx. [3] AVT Guppy Pro F-031C [online]. [cit. 03. 02. 2013]. Available at http://www.spectratech.gr/en/product/27412/avt_guppy_pro_f-031c. [4] STC-AF133A [online]. [cit. 15. 04. 2013]. available at http://www.sentechamerica.com/camerasautofocushd/stc-af133a.aspx. [5] EN ISO 5821: 2009, Zakladne tvary, rozmery a geometria spiciek. [6] VAGAS, M., HAJDUK, M., SEMJON, J., PÁCHNIKOVA, L., JÁNOŠ,R. :The view to the current state of robotics / - 2012. In: Advanced Materials Research. Vol. 463-464 (2012), p. 1711-1714. - ISSN 1022-6680. [7] PACHNIKOVA, L., HAJDUK, M., BELOVEZCIK, A. : Possibilities of Use of Virtual Reality in the Field of Manufacturing Systems - 2012. In: Applied Mechanics and Materials. Vol. 186 (2012), p. 188-193. - ISSN 1662-7482. [8] HAJDUK, M., SUKOP, M. :Multi-Agent Robotic System Robotic Soccer in Category Mirosot - 2012. In: Applied Mechanics and Materials. Vol. 186 (2012), p. 12-15. - ISSN 1662-7482. [9] DANISOVA, N., RUZAROVSKY, R., VELISEK, K.: Design methodology of automation equipment and control system in the intelligent assembly cell. In: Applied Mechanics and Materials. - ISSN 1660-9336. - Vol. 58-60 (2011), s. 2407-2412. [10] SVETLIK, J., DEMEC, P. : Mathematical modeling of machining by decomposition of lathe on modules. 2012. In: Metalurgija. Vol. 51, no. 2 (2012), p. 285-288. - ISSN 0543-5846. 149
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 CONTROLLING THE PROCESS OF EDDY CURRENT MAGNETIC SEPARATION Assoc. prof. Eng. Ján Vlnka, PhD Institute of automation, measurement and applied informatics (FME), STU Bratislava, Slovakia, Bc. Ekaterina Paneva, Macedonia Department of Applied mechanics and mechatronics, STU - Bratislava, Slovakia tel.: + 421 902 703 769, e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Eddy current magnetic separation is part of a wide spectrum of magnetic methods implemented in practice with the goal of waste separation and further recycling. It is based on two criteria to develop a technology that is environmentally friendly and economically beneficial while at the same time able to deal with the issue of exhaustion of non-ferrous metals. In this paper a theoretical model for an eddy current separator is designed and controlled. The process of separation was investigated through mathematical calculations of influencing parameters such as the particle s dimensions, material and shape, the velocity of the conveyor belt, the velocity of the rotating magnetic field and the number of magnet couples in the separator. Finally, this paper will present the optimal estimated operating conditions for this kind of separator and suitable for particles smaller than 3mm, along with suggestions for its improvement. Keywords magnets, eddy current magnetic separation, permanent magnets, non-ferrous particles, waste, recycling, mining technologies, drum rotation separator 1. INTRODUCTION Separation of and working with suspended components is an issue faced in thousands of applications and industries, especially since the giant industrial leap forward. Even though magnetism and the magnetic properties of materials were discovered long ago, no practical application in the field of separation, recycling and environmental protection was introduced until three decades ago. In that relatively short period, a lot of effective patents for separators were applied and therefore magnetic separation has emerged as one of the most promising solutions. Based on the incompatibilities of magnetic properties between particles made from different materials, or differences in their conductivity in the case of eddy current magnetic separation, this technology offers possible contributions in the cause of slowing down the exhaustion of non-ferrous metals. In an eddy current separator, electrically conductive non-ferrous particles are imposed on a time- dependent magnetic 150
field. In addition, based on the effect of electromagnetic induction and Foucault currents, repulsive forces are exerted on electrically conductive particles and, as a result of that, they are deflected from solid material mixtures. The first practical application of this type of separator was introduced in 1889, for extraction of gold from sand-deposits. Important progress in the eddy current separator s design was made at the University of Vanderbilt [1] in 1960. Their research included testing of a separator operating with alternate current. The electromagnet has used almost the same construction as a threephased motor, with the change that the stator was an opened and horizontally set linear motor. This kind of magnet was powered by 60Hz frequency current and installed above and under the conveyor belt. Royal Lee [2] came up with the idea of using a solenoid as a generator of an electromagnetic field. Based on this idea, the separator was constructed with a solenoid coil connected with a high-frequency current. This generator was responsible for providing a timechanging magnetic field able to induce eddy currents in the conductive particles and, as they entered the field, its intensity was lowered and they were deflected. Another variant of this model was Moyerov s separator [3] consisting of a linear motor with a frequency of 400-800 Hz that was able to create a changing magnetic field. This separator was capable of separating conductive particles with larger dimensions than the ones previous separators were able to separate. However, this frequency of current was suitable only for the separation of particles greater than 6mm. The newest kind of eddy current separators consists of separators made with strips of magnets with different polarity aligned as S-N-S in a drum or roll construction and rotating with high angular velocity. In this way a changing magnetic field is provided and the particles can be separated by deflection. The main goal of this paper is to propose and design an eddy current drum separator and optimize the conditions in which this kind of separator can operate. Also, a rough estimate of the particle s size is included, based on calculations of the parameters which influence the separation parameters defining the repulsive force and parameters defining the changing magnetic field. Magnetic vs. conductive properties of materials. Electromagnetic induction. Foucault currents This separation technology, as already mentioned, is based on the process of electromagnetic induction, in addition to two main properties of materials: magnetic and conductive. The common aspect of those two properties, which constantly keeps them codependent, is that both of them are defined as the capacity of a particle s inner structures for movement. Electro-conductive particles are particles that have an immense number of charged atoms which can move freely in a material structure in metals these are called free electrons. Their free movement through the material structure increases their kinetic energy and therefore they gain an energy close to Fermi energy. Those that manage to reach that energy level are conductive electrons. This property is noticeable only when a conductor is connected to 151
a voltage source, when an electric field is generated. A force dependent on the electron s charge and the intensity of the electric field is going to act on each electron. Magnetism is a characteristic of one material, defined as completely co-depending with the existence of an electric current and the magnetic moments of the particle. The fundamental source of magnetism in a material is the electric current and the moment generated by the electric force. Particles which show magnetic and also conductive properties can be defined as an electro-dynamic system. There are materials which by themselves display magnetic properties, but there also materials which can be magnetized by an inner source. Magnetic materials can be defined as materials that have an electro-neutral atom which is able to generate a magnetic field with a dipole character; in addition, it can generate a closed electric loop with a magnetic orbital moment. The electric loop of a moving electron can be defined mathematically as in eq. (2) and its current defines the magnetic dipole as: (2), - (3) The spinning moment of the electron is also crucial for the magnetic properties. If one particle has all the movements in the same direction, then pure magnetism is shown. Electromagnetic induction By defining the process of electromagnetic induction, the correlation between the magnetic and conductive properties has been proved. Faraday proved through his experiments that not only can a magnetic field be the source of electric current but also vice versa. In addition, one of them, the conductor or the magnetic field, has to make a movement. Due to that movement an electromotive force is created, which dependent on the change of the magnetic field. The time-changing, inhomogeneous magnetic field is crucial for induction. The magnetic and electric forces acting on the particles are created by the time-changing magnetic field. Eddy (Foucault) currents This technology of magnetic separation is derived from an experiment where wire conductor is replaced with a travelling metal board whose direction of movement is sidewise with regard to the conductor and due to this movement, eddy currents are induced. These currents will always have a direction which will oppose the field by which they were created, in this case, movement. This braking power is proportional to the velocity and has more practical use than frictional force. Movement of the conductor is one way to create eddy currents, but according to the law of electromagnetic induction, the reason could also be a changing magnetic field. (1) 152
Eddy current magnetic separation technology is based precisely on this principle. The most important factor for this kind of magnetic separation is the electrical conductivity of the particles which are the subject of our separation. These particles, or in this case solid waste, will be exposed to a changing magnetic field by the conveyor belt. According to Lenz s law, the magnetic field of induced current in the conductor stands in opposition to the change in magnetic flux that caused this current. These currents are also called Foucault currents [4]. Fig. 1 Illustration of the eddy currents caused by a falling magnet [4] Fig. 2 Secondary magnetic field created as opposed to the primary magnetic field [4] As a result of this changing magnetic field, the criteria for electromagnetic induction is fulfilled and due to the generated currents a magnetic field is generated in the particles that will have the opposite direction from the field that they were generated by. Between these two magnetic fields is induced a repulsive force (Lorenz Force) which acts on the particles. As a result of this, particles with conductive properties are deflected from the material flow into a separation box. 2. SUGESTED DESIGN OF THE SEPARATOR Industrial ECS (Eddy current separators) are represented by two rotating cylinder rolls, connected by a conveyor belt and carrying the material flow. The back roll, connected with a motor, moves the conveyor belt, and is usually made of steel. The front roll is actually a magnetic rotor, consisting of a layer of magnets through the whole length and cross section, arranged in S-N-S polarity. The whole roll rotates with great velocity in order to produce a rapidly changing magnetic field which is connected with another motor moving the magnetic rotor. The magnets are permanent and usually there are from 8 to 18 of them, depending on the diameter of the roll. The roll that represents the magnetic separator is in fact a two layered roll that moves independently. The outside layer supports the conveyor belt and the inner one, the magnetic separator. The magnetic rotor can make up to 3000 rotations per minute. Fig. 3 and Fig.4 illustrate the functioning of this kind of magnetic rotor. Fig. 3 shows the drum rotation (the rotation of the magnetic rotor) and a particle entering the magnetic field fed by the conveyor belt. 153
Fig. 3 Magnetic rotor connected with the conveyor belt [5] Fig. 4 Types of magnetic rotos [6] Type of magnet alignment The maximum rate of separation is possible with full rotors. Non-ferrous metals, which have a low electric susceptibility, need a strong magnetic field. The full rotors provide a wider magnetic field with stronger and greater impact on the material flow in comparison with eccentric rotors. This is due to the exponential dependence between the intensity of the magnetic field and the distance from the magnetic system. Only with centric full rotors is this distance minimized. Fig.4 illustrates the difference between the centric and eccentric type of magnetic rotor. In addition, it underlines the already mentioned advantage of the centric rotors, which are able to generate a wider and stronger magnetic field. In this way the wider angle of the material field will be influenced by the magnetic field and they are subject to separation for a longer time. The possibility to react to the magnetic field is improved with the full, concentric magnetic rotor. A maximum magnetic expulsion force over the whole area of the outer shell is achieved with concentric magnetic rotors with multiple points of separation. Size of the cylinder rolls As regards the size of the magnetic rotor, a diameter of 304mm (12 ) is recommended, as we are talking about a REO [7] full magnetic rotor. The number of magnets is variable according to the need for intensity in the magnetic field. This type of REO (rare earth original) magnetic rotors is also used in recycling for the dismantling of old vehicles and an effective rate of 95% has been demonstrably achieved. Blocks of powerful Rare Earth magnets are used to generate a deeper eddy current field. Modeling the separator This solution was championed by the NPO Ergo company, which introduced this model in practice and proved that this is the most useful separator model because it solves a few flaws in previous separators models. This proposed model, shown on Fig.5 apart from the two cylinder rolls connected by a conveyor belt that has already been described, also has a vibrating board from which the material flow will periodically be fed onto the conveyor belt. In this way it avoids the 154
issue of clumping and over-covering of the materials, improving and allowing better separation since the magnetic field will systematically affect the material flow. This model was made in CAD Software Catia Fig. 5 Design of an Eddy current roll separator 155
The simulation for the conveyor belt velocity, defining the angular velocity of the magnetic drum, was made with Simulink Software, and can be seen on Fig. 7. The simplified model for calculation is illustrated on Fig. 6 and the reduction method was used to determine the velocity of the conveyor belt. Fig. 6 Simulation for the conveyor belt velocity (Defining the angular velocity of the magnetic drum). Used method of reduction Fig. 7 Simulink model for calculating the torque moment of a DC motor and the velocity of the conveyor belt Parameter calculations and optimization of the separation conditions The repulsive force generated by the eddy currents [8] that affects the conductive nonferrous particles actually has two components tangential and radial, defined as following: ( ) ( ) (4) 156
and ( ) ( ) (5) where: s is the shape factor of the particle, V p is the volume of the particle, w is the width of one pair of magnets with different polarity, µ 0 is relative permeability, k the number of magnets, w b is the angular velocity of the rotor that the particle has at the moment of interaction with the magnetic field and τ is the characteristic time in which the induced magnetic field will start to decrease on the particle, defined as: [8] (6) where σ p is the conductivity of the particle, specific for each material, and b is the characteristic dimension of the particle. The deflection trajectory of the particles, however, doesn t depend only on the Lorentz repelling force, but also on the frictional, dynamic or static forces. At the moment of deflection, the particle is under the effect of the centrifugal force as a result of the magnet s rotation, gravitational force and the components of the Lorentz force. However, the force that is responsible for the particle s deflection is the radial component of the field s magnetic force, which sets a further condition for magnetic separation. [10] The conditions for deflection of the particles from the material flow therefore are: The conditions for deflection of the particles from the material flow are: and - Centrifugal force has to be bigger than the radial component of the magnetic force. The differential between those two has to be bigger than the gravitational force. - In the moment of interaction with the vertical axis of the rotor, the particle obtains an angular velocity and when this angular velocity and those of the magnetic rotor are equalized the particle is deflected from the material flow. This velocity is defined as [9]: ( ) (7) Another parameter that is important for defining the deflection of the particles is the particle s torque moment which is defined as [8]: ( ) ( ) (9) (8) 157
In line with the stated equations, it becomes easy to define the basic parameters which have the highest impact on the effectiveness of the magnetic separation. These are: Shape and size of the particles In this section, we investigated how particles with spherical, cylindrical and disc shapes are going to behave in the magnetic field. Tab. 1 shows the particles properties Tab. 1 List of shapes, dimensions and materials of investigated particles that are going to be influenced by the magnetic separator [9] Shape of the Particle Dimensions of the particle (R,L) /m Material Sphere Radius Al, Cu, PVT Cylindrical shape Radius Al, Cu, with vertical Cylinder s PVT orientation length L 1 =0,01 L 2 =0,025 Shape factor 1/40 3/64 Cylindrical shape with horizontal orientation Radius Cylinder s length L 1 =0,01 L 2 =0,025 Al, Cu, PVT 1/16 Disc Radius Cylinder s length L 1 =0,002 Al,Cu, PVT 1/64 Tab.2 Investigated parameters and their intervals of values Investigated parameters Angular velocity of the magnetic rotors Electric susceptibility of the particles ( ) Depending on the materials: Number of couples of permanent magnets ( ) Linear velocity of the conveyor belt ( ) Type of permanent magnet and magnetic field induction Neodyum magnet: NdFeB MQ1-B, - In the following part of this paper are presented the examination and calculations on the basis of which we optimized the conditions for separation using the modeled magnetic separator. 158
3. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION Angular velocity of the particles Angular velocity of the particle is the first investigated parameter, dependent on the shape, mass and the density of the particle, and also on the ratio of the moment of inertia of the particle and its mass. The dependence is linearly increasing, which is evident from Fig.8 given below. Fig. 8 Angular velocity of the particles in the moment of deflection from the material flow, depending on the shape factor γ Particle size The second parameter of optimization, investigated for all the shapes of particles. The indicating parameter is the whole value of the magnetic force which is responsible for the deflection of the particles. Results on Fig.9 and Fig. 10 Tab. 3 Constant and variable parameters for analyzing the optimal partical size Constant parameters Angular velocity of the magnetic rotor Intensity of magnetic field Velocity of conveyor belt Materials: Al and Cu 159
Fig. 9 The value of the radial component of the force depending on the Al particle s size Fig. 10 The value of the radial component depending on the Cu particle s size Type of permanent magnets and magnetic induction B The intensity of the types of magnets shows the characteristic values for the newest generations of permanent magnets. Constant values areas in the table above, plus a particle size of 0.03m. Results are given in Fig.11 for Cu particles and in Fig.12 for Al particles. Type of permanent magnets and magnetic induction B The intensity of the types of magnets shows the characteristic values for the newest generations of permanent magnets. Constant values areas in the table above, plus a particle size of 0.03m. Results are given in Fig.11 for Cu particles and in Fig.12 for Al particles. 160
Fig. 11 The value of the radial component depending on the intensity of the magnetic field for Cu particles Fig. 12 The value of the radial component depending on the intensity of the magnetic field for Al particles Particles with greater electrical conductivity can be separated with weaker magnets in comparison with those with weaker conductivity. The optimal magnetic induction needed for separation according to the calculations is 0.3T. We recommend increasing the angular velocity of the magnetic field. Another solution for decreasing these forces is the usage of a weaker ferrite permanent magnet. Conveyor belt velocity Particles are in a relatively non-moving state, but they change their position with respect to the magnetic rotor by moving with the conveyor belt. Therefore, this velocity should be optimized as a parameter which affects the value of the resultant generated by the Lorenz force. Here are the results in the Fig.13 and 14: 161
Fig. 13 The value of the radial component depending on the velocity of the conveyor belt for Al particles Fig. 14The value of the radial component depending on the velocity of the conveyor belt for Cu particles Fig.13 and 14 show that, the longer particles-increased velocity, are influenced by the magnetic field, the greater the induced magnetic force is going to be. The optimum velocity of the conveyor belt in order the separation to be gradual is as evident from the graphs from 0,6 to 1 ms -1 Number of coupled magnets This is the second parameter which is defining the changing character of the magnetic field. It s important because it significally changes the magnetic induction and the value of the magnetic force. Here are the results on Fig. 15 and 16: 162
Fig. 15 The value of the radial component depending on the number of couples of permanent magnets for Al particles Fig. 16 The value of the radial component depending on the number of couples of permanent magnets for Cu particles The results showed that for separating aluminium particles optimum number of magnets is 5 couples of magnets and for separating copper particles it is 4 couples of magnets. Angular velocity of the magnetic rotor This velocity defines the harmonic changing character of the magnetic field. It also has significant effect on magnetic induction B and it s recommendable to be as higher because the changing character of the field should be maintained. Results are on Fig.17 and 18: 163
Fig. 17 The value of the radial component depending on the angular velocity of the magnetic rotor for Cu particles Fig. 18 The value of the radial component depending on the angular velocity of the magnetic rotor for Al particles This velocity is the subject of the controls part of this project, which will vary for separation of particles made from different materials, since it was shown that the optimum value is different for both types of particle. The solution we suggest is two-stepped separation in order to change the angular velocity. 4. CONCLUSION Optimal conditions for magnetic separation with this type of magnetic separator, for both aluminium and copper particles, are given in table 3 and table 4. 164
Tab. 4 Optimal conditions for magnetic separation for copper particles Particle s shape Para metre Spher ical Cylindri cal Cylindr ical Cylindr ical Cylindr ical Dis c D[m 25 25 25 25 25 25 m] L[m 10 25 10 25 2 m] B[T] 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3 ω d [s - 25 25 25 25 25 25 1 ] v[m] 0,6 0,6 0,6 0,6 0,6 0,6 F v (C u)[n] 7,51 4,56 4,56 3,63 3,63 0,9 69 Tab. 5 Optimal conditions for magnetic separation for aluminium particles Particle s shape Para metre Sphe rical Cylindri cal Cylindr ical Cylindri cal Cylindr ical Dis c D[m 30 30 30 30 30 30 m] L[m 10 25 10 25 2 m] B[T] 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,3 ω d [s- 30 30 30 30 30 30 1] v[m] 0,6 0,6 0,6 0,6 0,6 0,6 F v (Al )[N] 4,56 7,04 7,04 5,78 5,78 2,12 The separation forces depend on the specific conductivity of a particle, its mass, size and shape, and on the intensity and distribution of the magnetic field. The main goal of this work was firstly to introduce to the audience the importance of separation based on the magnetic properties of the particles and to show and emphasize the advantages of these methods of separation over most of the others because of their environmentally friendly character, their economic benefits and their ease of implementation. The second part of this work was dedicated to an examination of all the parameters that influence the rate of separation and to discover the necessary optimal conditions for successful separation. This was achieved by designing a specific model of an eddy current separator and by detailed mathematical analysis of the correlations between the parameters. 165
The analysis showed that particle size is the most important factor for separation, taking into account that this separator is not capable of separating particles larger than 30 mm, which means that this part should be controlled even before the separation is started. The angular velocity of the magnetic rotor, which can be checked through the motor controlling system, also has a great influence. Another very important factor is the material of the particles, because its electrical conductivity is defined by this. As was shown in the graphs from these analyses, the potential solution that will work for the separation of non-ferrous metals with a great difference in their electric conductivity is a two-stepped separator. REFERENCES [1] Roos, C.E., Nonferrous metal sorting at Vanderbilt University. Final report tothe Solid Waste Management Office, Environmental Protection Agency., July1976, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 240pp. [2] Zarkhova, S.M., Method and apparatus for electro dynamic separation of nonmagnetic free flowing materials. U. S. Patent, 4,238,323, December 9, 1980. [3] Morey, W.B., Separation of non-magnetic conductive metals. U. S. Patent 4,137,156, January 30, 1979. [4] Metal Separator for Copper and Stainless Steel, Denis Sokolov, Savonia University of applied science, 25.02.2012 http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/slideshows/eddycurrents/index.html [5] P. C. Rem, E. M. Beunder, and A. J. van den Akker, Simulation of Eddy-Current Separators, Transactions on magnetics, Vol.34, No. 4, july 1998. [6] Eriez Magnetics Brochure http://www.eriez.com [7] Eddy Current Non- ferrous Metal Separators, SB-780N [8] Francesca S., Paolo B., Peter R., Eddy Current separation of fine non-ferrous particles from bulk streams. Physical Separation in Science and Engineering, 2004, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 15 23 [9] R.J. Parker: Advances in Permanent Magnetism. John Wiley & Sons, New York 1990 [10] J.Pitel, F.Chovanec, V.Hencl, The application of superconducting magnet system to dry magnetic separation of coal, 1992 Gordon and Breach Science Publishers S.A. Expert proofreading of the article:assoc.prof.eeng. Neitus Lipták, PhD. 166
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 Problems in the teaching of electrical engineering at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Slovak University of Technology Assoc.prof. Eng. Ján Vlnka, PhD. Institute of automation, measurement and applied informatics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Slovak University of Technology Bratislava, Slovakia Abstract e-mail: [email protected] Contribution shows the significant representation of electrical and electronic engineering in mechatronics and the relevant problematics of teaching at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. Here is, to display the complete picture of the qualifications of students and staff. Keywords Prevention, persons without electrotechnical qualifications, persons qualified as electrician, Decree no. 508/2009 Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family of the Slovak Republic, 20 - an informed worker, persons of skilled competence, education 1. INTRODUCTION Problems in the teaching of electrical engineering at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Slovak University of Technology The use of electricity is part of our everyday life and has penetrated into all activities. This is also seen in the structure of mechatronics. The following simplified three-element schematic definition of mechatronics points out the significant presence of electrical engineering and electronics. 167
Fig. 1 Definition of Mechatronics In addition to positive aspects of mechatronics it also has negative ones, which can cause injury and death to humans, start fires and explosions and so cause a property damage. There is accordingly a strong emphasis placed on prevention. Prevention can only be carried out by informed and knowledgeable persons. This issue is dealt with by a number of rules, regulations, laws, standards and declarations. Ignorance of these legal provisions is no excuse and is not even a mitigating factor. Slovakia s entry into the European Union has put even more emphasis on health and safety when working with electrical equipment, on fire safety, environmental responsibility, emergency preparedness and the use of personal protective equipment in the form of strict restrictive measures for their violations and non-compliance. Most people without electrical qualification work on workplaces and maintain electrical equipment and appliances as part of their jobs. Electrical appliances also include computers, a fact which the employers often forget. Electrical equipment and appliances in incorrect operation can be a source of threat to life and property. Each workplace is individual, and therefore employees must be properly instructed and trained for each electrical mechanism and appliance. Training and instruction should be repeated at regular intervals, in dependence on the demands of the given activity. In addition, decrees, regulations, and laws change periodically, for example the previous decree of the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family of the Slovak Republic (MPSVaR) was issued as no. 718 of the year 2002, while currently in force is Decree No. 508/2009, which means that the difference between the decrees was only seven years. This has an effect that each staff member without an electrotechnical qualification (from the Dean down to the cleaning lady) must achieve a minimum of professional competence under Section 20 an informed worker. Professional competence can only be obtained by training under current general regulations and local regulations according to the job description of the individual workers. However not by a selfstudy! 168
The purpose of the training is to give workers the basic material for consequent tests and to acquaint them with the terminology associated with carrying out inspections and controls and sanitation in the maintenance of electrical equipment. Workers who have no direct access to the legal standards must be provided with direct information or at least given instructions on where to find the answers. They must also be shown the requirements that health and safety units organizations must meet in order for them to ensure their safety and allow them to perform their assigned activities. Finally, the duty exists to make employees aware of the number of new STN regulations that meet the obligations under international treaties and membership in international and European standardization organizations (ISO, CEN, CENELEC and ETSI) Tab. 1 There are: - World level IEC, ISO, - European level EN, - National level STN, STN IEC STN ISO, EN. Where: ISO International Organization for Standardization IEC International Organization for Standardization CEN European Committee for Standardization CENELEC European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization ETSI - European Telecommunications Standards Institute Level World level (Slovakia is a full member) European level (Slovakia is a full member) National level Standard designatio n Electrical area Other areas IEC, ISO IEC ISO EN CENELEC CEN STN, STN IEC, STN ISO, STN EN ÚNMS Slovak Office of Standards, Metrology and Testing SEV/ÚNMS OMV Slovak Electrotechnical Department of International Commission Relations SÚTN Slovak Standards Institute Electrical engineering Engineering Construction Chemistry Compiler TNK Compiler TNK SÚTN publishers 169
Staff competence in relation to electrical equipment is prescribed by Ministry Decree No. 508/2009 Coll. to assure safety and health at work and the safety of technical equipment. This decree divides workers into two groups, namely: - electrician without electrotechnical education, introducing the concept Layman (standard STN 34 31 08). It's 20 instructed worker, - worker with electrotechnical education. Electrotechnical education as such is not sufficient to operate electrical equipment. A professional qualification for activities on electrical equipment according to the nature of the work performed and experience on electrical equipment must still be obtained. This is an instructed worker ( 21, 22) and a skilled worker with advanced qualification ( 23, 24) Tab. 2 For each instruction an instruction registration must be drawn up and filed, this applies to 20 while for 21 and, 22, 23, 24 a certificate is issued which is certificate of competency of an electrotechnician for the authorized area. 2. PROBLEMS IN THE FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING At the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering the administrators do not understand these laws, decrees and regulations, hence make quite incompetent decisions. Recently, retraining and testing according to 20 was done at our former Department of Electrical Engineering. Then a new era came along and some people thought they are competent to write a law. For example despite the fact that I had achieved 23 (!!!), I was forced to undergo a training according to 20. After 2009, the administrators discovered that all the faculty staff needed to be retrained according to 20 and hired an external firm to retrain all workers. Of course, these external companies had to be dully paid. An external company was empowered with the inspection of the PSA laboratory, where the measured voltage of a grounding plug was 38V, and on rainy days water dripped onto a part of the electrical equipment. I reported this and even warned about it, but nobody paid any attention. I have been getting tired of this, because about 5 times I had reported what was not in order on the PSA equipment, Besides all this I had to struggle with other problems such as incompetent interventions in teaching, for example that mechanical engineering doctoral students with only 20, (and even some even without it) were teaching the Electrical Engineering laboratory subject. When the validity of my decree 23 ended, I reported it and was asked 'who will pay for it?' I wanted to get 24 170
so that I could issue certificates for those interested in PSA training, I was refused with the question 'who will pay the 1,000?' for the training, since the granting of 24 is preceded by training lasting one month. In addition, I was enormously burdened by pedagogical duties. One time a PSA training center approached me to do the training in English, which is very demanding in terms of preparation. I did it, and I later learned that I supposedly but refused training. The school administration was always after me to train the wanted personnel (those without electrotechnical qualifications). I refused it because I do not want to go to jail for someone else s incompetence. At the moment the situation is such that a PSA worker allows entry of such workers into the electrical engineering laboratories. It is not right. I wonder who would be responsible if something were to happen. Not that long ago there were 9 members at the Department of Electrical Engineering, now I'm the only one, and the number of classroom hours corresponds to this situation. The volume of teaching electrical engineering is steadily reduced. Previously, mechanical engineering undergraduates had 8 hours of electrical engineering within their basic studies, spread over two semesters (2-2, credit, exam) in the winter semester, (2-2, credit, exam) in the summer semester while some specializations had an additional 4 hours, in total 156 hours or 182 hours in the study program. However, the certificate according to 21 requires electrotechnical training and 400 hours of electrical engineering education without the required experience, 22 requires an additional one year of practical experience. So 244 hours, or 218 hours, are missing for the issuing of a certificate. In both cases this is more than 50 percent. Currently, within the fundamentals of electrical engineering students have only 4 teaching hours of electrical engineering (2-2, credit, exam) from a total of 52 hours. After the accreditation system was put into place, Electrical Engineering became an optional elective course, along with languages. This adds up to a deficit of 348 hours for anyone to be certified. Wishing to know why am I analyzing this? Because there is a strict demand from employers that graduates applying for employment should have decree 21 at minimum. These graduates contact me asking to obtain the certificate from me, or at least for me to certify the number of hours of electrical engineering they have completed. The paradox is that these are students who had no further electrical engineering in upper years. I can only certify that they completed the basic 52 hours. But since everything is a matter of commerce, I know that some graduates and even teachers have been issued certificates under 21, 22, and even 23. What though. This not all right. This lack of order will continue until some tragic accident happens. Then the why and how shall be investigated. And that also applies to doctoral students who are forced to have electrical engineering laboratory lessons. Some 'experts' come to me with the erroneous rule that the Mechatronics study program allows obtaining 21 level. Let you ask yourself which type of mechatronics are they referring to? The one taught at FEI STU, where there is a prevalence of electrical engineering subjects throughout the study program? Or the mechatronics that is taught at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, where there is a 171
preponderance of mechanical-engineering subjects and electrical engineering is just an optional one? 3. CONCLUSION It is a complete disaster that under the new accreditation Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering is offered as an optional subject along with foreign languages. Such a case can happen where a student comes to the faculty from an academic secondary school without electrical engineering subjects. He comes to the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, selects the language option and graduates without a single electrical engineering lesson. Today when machines and vehicles are have over 50 percent electrical equipment which accounts for 60 percent of the price. What will be the competitiveness of our graduates on the labor market? How will they be able to deal with problems if they have no idea about the safety of working with electronic equipment, with circuit calculations, electronic components, electrical motors, electromagnetic compatibility and the like? How will they be able to cooperate in a team without any professional understanding to the electrotechnical partner, worker and engineer, not alone a researcher? LITERATURE [1] [1] Vlnka, J.: Safety and protection, for practice with electrical equipment of electric formula car STUBA Green Team, internal publication, 2010 [2] Meravý,J.: Electrician competence for non-electricians, EPOS 2004 [3] Gašparovský D.: ABC for professional qualification of workers, skills in electrotechnics, 2. supplemented and updated edition, Slovak Electrotechnical Association Chamber of Electrical Engineers Slovakia, Bratislava 2009 [4] Ţila, B.-Dorda, S.: Safety regulations for activities on electrical equipment. Orbis Pictus Ostrava 1998 [5] Collection Codex No. 508/2009 [6] Slovak Technical Standard STN 34 31 00/ 2001 Expert proofreading: Assoc. prof. Eng. Neitus Lipták, CSc. 172
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 Problémy VN batérií pre ELEKTROMOBILY RISK CONSULT, s.r.o., Bratislava [email protected] Abstract Contribution solve problems of batteries in electric vehicles Keywords Li-ion HV Battery, e-up, LiPF 6, organic solvent 1 ÚVOD VN batérie pre elektromobily VN batéria e-up! Nové elektromobily s vysokokapacitnými lítium iónovými (Li-ión) VN batériami s garanciou 10 rokov prevádzky! Poţiadavky : Kapacita 85 110 kwh Rozmery: 2000 x 1300 x 620 mm Vloţený okruh chladenia RÝCHLE DOBÍJANIE AŢ 1 000 NABÍJACÍCH CYKLOV 173
CELKOVÁ ŢIVOTNOSŤ AŢ 10 000 NABÍJACÍCH CYKLOV DOJAZD NA JEDNO NABITIE MIN 250 KM JE TO EŠTE VôBEC REÁLNE? Li-ión VN batérie vylepšujeme uţ takmer 20 rokov, ale základný princíp ich fungovania zostáva stále rovnaký! Preto sú a aj naďalej budú ťaţké, veľké a veľmi drahé a čoraz viacej problémové - aj z hľadiska ich bezpečnosti a recyklácie! Uţ súčasné Li ión elektrické články obsahujú organické gélové elektrolyty 3. generácie s lítium hexafluórfosfátom - LiPF6 (horľavý, toxický,...), ktorý tak skoro nenahradíme. V ČOM SPOČÍVA JEDEN Z PROBLÉMOV? Výrobcovia Li-ión článkov aj VN batérií ich dokáţu uţ dnes naformátovať tak, ţe vydrţia cca 2 000 nabíjacích cyklov podľa ich odporúčaní (nabíjanie v domácej zásuvke)! Užívatelia ignorujú ich odporúčania a efektívna ţivotnosť elektromobilov je tak cca 5 rokov (Tesla, VW,...)! Jeden z najvýznamnejších problémov predstavuje rýchle nabíjanie Li ión VN batérií, ktoré významne zniţuje ich ţivotnosť, ale aj spoľahlivosť a bezpečnosť! V ČOM JE JEDNA Z PRÍČIN? Zloţitá konfigurácia usporiadania cca 200 300 Li ión článkov VN batérie vytvára jej potenciálne slabé miesta! Tepelné zvrhnutie (prieraz) je uţ jednoznačne charakterizované samozahriatim na úrovni 10 C.min -1 a viac. V tejto fáze rozbehu procesu je uţ veľmi nepravdepodobné, ţe akýkoľvek zásah alebo chladenie zvonku dokáţe zastaviť celkovú degradáciu VN batérie! V ČOM JE JEDNA Z PRÍČIN? Zloţitá konfigurácia VN - batérie a jednoduché testy jej článkov: 174
AKO SA TO DÁ RIEŠIŤ? Ak nechceme obmedzovať uţívateľa, tak musíme zlepšiť odvod tepla z VN batérie núteným vetraním alebo zmenou chladiaceho média (voda, iné plyny,...). Uţ realizované uzavreté systémy vodného chladenia však skomplikovali nielen riešenie týchto VN batérií, ale otvorili aj nové otázky súvisiace hlavne s ich bezpečnosťou. Organický elektrolyt LiPF 6 v Li-iónových článkoch síce teploty okolo 60 C ešte zvláda, avšak ani špičkové systémy BMS negarantujú komplexné sledovanie ţivotnosti kaţdého článku VN batérie. Ak teda nechceme vkladať do Li ión VN batérií pomocné systémy prirodzeného odvodu tepla (pasívna bezpečnosť), keďţe aktívne externé systémy chladenia by tento problém neriešili (princíp jednoduchej poruchy), potom stojíme pred problémom optimalizácie konfigurácie skupín Li iónových článkov a ich vzájomnej (skupinovej) fyzickej separácie. Takéto riešenie je však zaloţené na riešení problematiky termodynamickej rovnováhy izolovanej fyzikálnej sústavy, jednoznačne s dopadmi na vonkajší a tieţ vnútorný plášť VN batérií, ale tieto dopady je moţné očakávať aj pri iných riešeniach tohto problému. EXISTUJÚ VHODNÉ MATERIÁLY? Je zrejmé, ţe vonkajšie rozmery VN batérií sú uţ limitné! Fyzická separácia článkov len vzdialenosťou je v tomto prípade neefektívna, takţe prichádzajú do úvahy viaceré tenké elektricky nevodivé materiály s dobrou tepelnou vodivosťou, ale aj mechanickou pevnosťou vkladané medzi jednotlivé články a sekcie článkov. Takéto riešenie by postačovalo aj na elimináciu kritických poruchových (havarijných) stavov VN - batérií vedúcich napr. k ich poţiarom a čiastočne by riešilo aj problémy spojené s ich rýchlym nabíjaním (efektívnejší odvod tepla). Problémy však môţu nastať pri integrovaní tohto vnútorného sekčného rozdelenia do vonkajšieho plášťa VN batérií. 175
Pri zloţitých konfiguráciách VN batérií budú zrejme potrebné aj veľkorozmerové testy integrity, avšak tento problém súvisí aj so súčasnými riešeniami týchto VN batérií. Ukazuje sa však, ţe v materiálovej oblasti je viacero riešení! ZÁVERY 1.Problémy sú uţ aktuálne. 2.Nie je moţné ich riešiť pomocnými nútenými systémami odvodu tepla. 3.Existujú materiály pre efektívnu fyzickú a mechanickú separáciu. Expert proofreading of the article: doc. Ing. Ján Vlnka, PhD. 176
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 Industry 4.0 digitálne dvojča Ing. Martin Morháč SOVA DIGITAL a.s. Bojnícka 3, 831 04 Bratislava Tel.: +421 2 43 33 06 43, [email protected] Abstract Sme na začiatku zmien, ktoré zásadným spôsobom zmenia spôsob, akým žijeme, pracujeme, a komunikujeme. Prednáška predstavuje rozsah a možnosti prinášané najnovšími inováciami postavenými na digitalizácii a aplikácii najnovších technológií. Jadro prednášky je postavené na technológiách a inováciách zameraných na priemysel, pričom vyústi do objasnenia princípu fungovania tzv. digitálneho dvojčaťa, ako reálneho modelu aplikácie Industry 4.0 aj v slovenských podnikoch. Keywords Industry 4.0, digital twins, technological innovation, Product Lifecycle Management (PLM), Digital Manufacturing (DM), cyber-physical systems (CPS), ÚVOD Industry 4.0 alebo štvrtá priemyselná revolúcia je pomenovanie rozsiahlych zmien prudko vstupujúcich do súčasného priemyslu. Nositeľom týchto zmien je digitalizácia. Jedná sa o digitalizáciu výrobkov, digitalizáciu a optimalizáciu všetkých podnikových procesov, vrátane sluţieb. Súčasná vlna digitalizácie zasiahne takmer všetky oblasti ţivota človeka. Technologicky je Industry 4.0 postavené na aplikácii: digitálnych technológií - Internet, Product Lifecycle Management, Big Data, Cloudy... exponenciálnych technológií - pokročilá robotika, 3D tlač, umelá inteligencia, senzoring, biotechnológie, neurotechnológie, nanotechnológie... Základným prvkom Industry 4.0 sú takzvané kyberneticko-fyzikálne systémy (cyberphysical systems CPS), snímajúce a spracovávajúce dáta z fyzických zariadení. Internetovým zosieťovaním viacerých CPS sa vytvárajú aplikácie nazývané internet vecí a internet sluţieb, ktoré s vhodne kombinovanými technológiami vedú k inteligentnej továrni. 177
Priemyselný podnik pracujúci na princípe Industry 4.0 je charakteristický: 1. Vertikálnym zosieťovaním a dátovým prepojením všetkých podnikových procesov 2. Horizontálnym zintegrovaním všetkých účastníkov hodnotového reťazca (výrobca, dodávatelia i zákazník) 3. Permanentým engineeringom (konštrukčné, technologické i priemyselné inţinierstvo) neustále aktualizujúcim dáta o výrobku i o výrobnom procese počas celého ţivotného cyklu výrobku. Industry 4.0 je principiálne postavené na dôkladnom vyuţití všetkých dostupných informácií, vrátane obrovského mnoţstva doteraz nezachytávaných informácií (technologicky to nebolo moţné) a automatizácii ich spracovania. Výsledkom sú výrobky so zabudovaným internetom prinášajúce ich uţívateľom úplne nové vlastnosti, so zníţenými nákladmi a dodávané za kratší čas. Procesy v podniku sú výrazne produktívnejšie a efektívnejšie a vznikajú nové podnikateľské modely poskytujúce zákazníkom zásadne nové sluţby. Aktuálne pouţiteľným a veľmi efektívnym riešením Industry 4.0 pre priemyselné podniky je tzv. digitálne dvojča. Je postavené na spolupráci reálnej fyzickej výroby a jej digitálneho modelu. V digitálnej časti sa detailne pripraví celý výrobný proces vrátane návrhu a usporiadania pracovísk, liniek, logistiky a takto pripravené dáta sa zavedú do fyzickej výroby. V procese fyzickej výroby sa snímajú všetky vybrané parametre, ktoré sa vracajú späť do digitálneho dvojčaťa, kde sa na ich základe optimalizuje výrobný proces a podľa takto upravených dát sa opäť vyrába. Tento proces sa neustále opakuje a vylepšuje. Na strane digitálneho modelu výroby sa vyuţívajú dva hlavné softvérové nástroje. Digital Manufacturing (DM), v ktorom je moţné navrhovať výrobné procesy, detailne navrhovať a simulovať prácu jednotlivých pracovísk, ergonómiu pracovísk, výrobnú, skladovú i distribučnú logistiku. Jedná sa o súbor nástrojov určených predovšetkým na optimalizáciu výrobných činností. Druhým nosným softvérovým nástrojom sú systémy PLM (Product Lifecycle Management), ktoré riadia a spravujú dáta a procesy spojené s výrobkami a s výrobnými procesmi. Sú to nástroje, ktoré sú chrbticou podniku pracujúceho na báze Industry 4.0, pretoţe spájajú všetky podnikové procesy, zabezpečujú integráciu dodávateľov i zákazníkov a riadia permanentný engineeirng. V nich sa dáta vytvárajú, distribuujú a aktualizujú. Zároveň sa v nich vyhodnocujú aj dáta zozbierané z výroby. PLM a DM sú vzájomne integrované a vytvárajú ucelené jadro digitálneho dvojčaťa. Na strane fyzickej výroby je potrebné vytvoriť systém automatizovaného zberu informácií z výroby. Tu je potrebné sa sústrediť na tie procesy a činnosti, ktoré významnejšie ovplyvňujú priebeţné časy, náklady, prípadne kvalitu. Tieto údaje je potrebné zbierať a vo vhodnom časovom intervale spracovať a výsledky previesť do DM a zoptimalizovať. Digitalizáciu fyzickej výroby je moţné robiť postupne a aj bez veľkých investícií na existujúcich strojoch a zariadeniach, ktoré je postupne moţné kombinovať so zariadeniami 178
postavenými na exponenciálnych technológiách. Je to dlhodobý proces, postupne vylepšujúci fyzický priebeh výroby. Na aplikáciu Industry 4.0 neexistuje ţiadna šablóna. Kaţdá firma potrebuje unikátne riešenie zodpovedajúce jej stratégii rozvoja, podmienok charakteru výrobkov, výroby, jej opakovanosti, zmenám na trhu a predstáv manaţmentu. 179
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY IN BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 CIRCUMVENTION THE OBSTACLES BY USING ROBOT APPLICATION OF LEE ALGORITHM ON THE ROBOT WITH SCARA KINEMATICS Assoc. Prof. Marian Králik Institute of manufacturing systems, environmental technology and quality management tel.: + 421 2 57296 579, e-mail: [email protected] Ing. Mgr. Zuzana Tekulová, PhD. Institute of manufacturing systems, environmental technology and quality management tel.: + 424 5 57296 555, e-mail: [email protected] Abstract The paper deals with the problem of circumventing the obstacles by using robot and with the application of Lee algorithm for non-collision movement of the robot around the obstacle. First part of the paper is focused on the brief description of robot s path planning problem, characteristic of several methods for path planning of robot, general assessment of robot s workspace and the description of robot s kinematical structure. Second part offers the analysis of the robot with SCARA kinematics and presents Lee algorithm. It describes the sequence of particular steps of Lee algorithm s application from definition of the avoided obstacle through creation of the configuration field and its evaluation to finding the suitable path of robot s movement around the obstacle. Acquaintance with the Lee algorithm and pointing out on possibility of its application to the particular robot can be regarded as a substance of the paper. Keywords path planning of industrial robot, robot with SCARA kinematics, Lee algorithm, configuration field 1 ÚVOD Pohyb priemyselného robota je pomerne zloţitou úlohou pre plánovanie trajektórie pohybu jeho efektora. Určite z hľadiska bezpečnosti, bezkolíznosti, správnosti a presnosti. Ak sa má robot pohybovať bezproblémovo a bezpečne v kaţdej situácii je potrebné, aby akákoľvek prekáţka umiestnená do dráhy jeho pohybu bola robotom bezpečne obídená. Často je nutné optimalizovať dráhu pohybu z hľadiska najkratšej dráhy. 180
2 ROVNICE Problém plánovania dráhy robota je vo všeobecnosti povaţovaný za základný problém robotiky. Riešení tohto problému existuje niekoľko. Väčšina z nich vychádza zo základnej myšlienky, ţe samotný robot ako pohybujúce sa teleso, je transformovaný na bod a súčasne aj prekáţky sú zväčšené o charakteristické rozmery robota. Takto je samotný problém transformovaný na hľadanie dráhy bodu v priestore transformovaných prekáţok. Existujúce metódy riešenia plánovania dráhy moţno rozdeliť do troch skupín: a) algoritmické metódy b) heuristické metódy c) nediskrétne metódy Algoritmické plánovanie pohybu je zaloţené na objektovo orientovaných, presných a diskrétnych algoritmických technikách, pri ktorých sa predpokladá existencia efektívnych riešení. Tento prístup zdôrazňuje presný matematický pohľad na problém. Skúma výpočtovú zloţitosť a riešiteľnosť pouţitými algoritmami. Presné riešenia pre zloţité pohybujúce sa systémy môţu byť výpočtovo nerealizovateľné. Pre praktické aplikácie sú pravdepodobne nevyhnutné heuristické algoritmy, ktorých efektívnemu riešeniu môţu napomôcť práve teoretické poznatky z algoritmických riešení. Pri nediskrétnych metódach je problém plánovania pohybu integrálnou súčasťou riadenia robota na niţšej úrovni. Prekáţky sú tu typicky modelované ako odpudivé polia, zatiaľ čo cieľovú polohu reprezentuje silné príťaţlivé pole. Riešenie je zaloţené na predpoklade, ţe existuje dráha, po ktorej sa teleso, pohybujúce sa po potenciálovom gradiente poľa, môţe dostať k cieľovému bodu. Spoločným východiskovým princípom algoritmických a heuristických riešení je metóda konfiguračného priestoru. Metóda konfiguračného priestoru je definovaná dvoma základnými problémami: 1. Findspace (nájdi priestor) 2. Findpath (nájdi dráhu) Nech R je konvexný mnohosten, ktorý ohraničuje pracovný priestor, a ktorý obsahuje k b ďalších konvexných mnohostenov B j, ktoré predstavujú prekáţky. Nech A je objekt, ktorý sa pohybuje a pozostáva z k A konvexných mnohostenov A i, t.j. A k A i1 A 1 1) Findspace Nájdi konfigurácie pre A vnútri R tak, ţe pre všetky i,j platí: A i B j = 0 Konfigurácia, pre ktorú platí uvedený vzťah sa nazýva voľná alebo bezkolízna. Mnoţina všetkých konfigurácií, pre ktoré platí A i B j = 0 sa označuje FP a nazýva sa voľný konfiguračný priestor. Mnoţinu všetkých konfigurácií, pre ktoré platí A B 0 sa označuje CO A (B) a nazýva sa množinou konfiguračných prekážok telesa A vzhľadom na prítomnosť telesa B. 181
2) Findpath Nájdi dráhu pre A z konfigurácie S do konfigurácie G tak, aby A bolo vţdy v R a všetky konfigurácie A na dráhe boli bezkolízne. Takáto dráha sa nazýva bezkolízna. Širšie chápaná metóda konfiguračného priestoru definuje mnoţinu prípustných polôh, konfigurácií ako n - rozmerný priestor, kde n je počet stupňov voľnosti pohybu. Poloha všetkých bodov telesa je potom jednoznačne určená skupinou n prvkov. Konfiguračný priestor sa označuje Cspace. Kaţdej kolíznej podmienke zodpovedá v konfiguračnom priestore zakázaná oblasť. Voľný konfiguračný priestor je definovaný ako doplnok k zjednoteniu zakázaných oblastí. Súradnicové systémy je moţné umiestňovať do článkov robota v podstate ľubovoľne, napr. do stredového bodu kinematických dvojíc, do ťaţiska a pod., no zostavenie transformačnej matice niekedy nie je jednoduché a je nutné pouţiť niekoľko goniometrických vzorcov. Pri dodrţiavaní konvencie rozmiestňovania súradnicových systémov (Denavit a Hartenberg, 1995) je moţné zostavovať transformačné matice automaticky [1]. Obr. 1 Denavit Hartenbergov princíp [1] Aplikáciou poznatkov vznikne výsledná transformačná matica medzi dvoma susednými súradnicovými systémami. Jej tvar je stále rovnaký, a to pre všetky lokálne súradnicové systémy kinematickej štruktúry bez ohľadu na typ pohybovej jednotky. Parametre φ i, d i, a i, α i sa jednoducho získavajú po rozmiestnení súradnicových systémov. Ich geometrický význam je nasledujúci [3]: A i-1 = cos( i) sin( i) 0 0 sin( )*cos( ) cos( )*cos( ) i i sin( ) 0 i i i sin( )*sin( ) i cos( )*sin( ) i cos( ) 0 i i ai *cos( i) a *sin( ) i i d i 1 φ i uhol medzi osami x i-1 a x i pri otáčaní okolo z i-1 d i najkratšia vzdialenosť medzi osami x i-1 a x i, za kladný smer sa povaţuje ten v smere osi z i-1 a i najkratšia vzdialenosť medzi osami z i-1 a z i, za kladný smer sa povaţuje ten v smere osi x i α i uhol medzi osami z i-1 a z i pri otáčaní okolo osi x i. 182
3 ANALÝZA ROBOTA S KINEMATIKOU SCARA Týmto robotom sa venuje pozornosť z dôvodu ich špeciálnej štruktúry. Poskytujú extrémne vysokú tuhosť a nehybnosť okolo dvoch osí normálovej a osi rotácie. Prvé roboty SCARA mali sériovú štruktúru s troma rotačnými a jedným prizmatickým kĺbom [5]. Roboty SCARA dosahujú vynikajúce výkony. Sú pouţívané pre štandardné pick and place operácie. Pouţitím sériovej štruktúry vo väčšine robotov SCARA je veľmi náročné prerušiť samotný cyklus činnosti robota a rovnako náročné je aj zvyšovanie jeho nosnosti. Tieto nedostatky môţu byť odstránené pouţitím alternatívnych štruktúr paralelnej alebo hybridnej [5]. Obr. 2 Robot s kinematikou SCARA - YAMAHA YK400X, použitý pre aplikáciu Leeho algoritmu [2] Kinematická štruktúra robota typu SCARA pozostáva zo štyroch častí: centrálna časť prvé rameno, ktoré je rotačným kĺbom pripojené na centrálnu časť (moţnosť rotácie okolo osi z) druhé rameno, ktoré je pripojené na prvé cez rotačný kĺb (moţnosť rotácie okolo osi z) zvislé rameno, ktoré je súčasťou druhého ramena a vysúva sa z neho (pohyb v smere osi z) Vyuţitím Denavit - Hartenbergovho princípu je moţné do jednotlivých kĺbov vloţiť súradnicové systémy a na základe nich vytvoriť transformačné matice. Tie vyjadrujú transformačný vzťah (prvá matica vyjadruje transformáciu prvého systému voči nultému, a pod.) podľa teórie Denavita a Hartenberga. Označujú sa aj ako D-H matice alebo, ako v tomto prípade, A matice. Výslednú transformačnú maticu získame vynásobením čiastkových transformačných matíc, podľa presného poradia vykonania pohybov. Spomínaná postupnosť krokov z predchádzajúcej kapitoly je teraz vyuţitá na konkrétnom príklade robota typu SCARA, model YAMAHA YK400X. Nasledujúci obrázok znázorňuje schému robota a tabuľku parametrov pre výpočet transformačných matíc. 183
Obr. 3 Zjednodušená schéma robota typu SCARA a tabuľka parametrov φ i, d i, a i, α i Výsledná transformačná matica T E poskytuje údaje o orientácii a polohe koncového efektora voči základnému súradnicovému systému robota: T E = cos( q sin( q 1 1 q q 0 0 2 2 q ) 4 q ) 4 sin( q cos( q 1 1 q ) 0 0 q ) 2 2 0 0 1 0 a *cos( q 1 1 1 a *sin( q 1 ) a ) a d 3 2 2 q 0 *cos( q *sin( q 3 1 1 q q 2 ) ) 2 Leeho algoritmus je algoritmus, ktorý moţno pouţiť ako riešenie problému bludiska smerovania jednotlivých trás pohybu robota. Jeho úlohou je nájsť najkratšiu dráhu medzi dvoma bodmi v labyrinte (obr. 4). Podstata spočíva vo vytvorení konfiguračného poľa, v ktorom sa nachádza prekáţka, jeho ohodnocovaní a následnom vyhľadávaní vhodnej cesty. Konfiguračný priestor (pole) je mnoţina všetkých pozícií, ktoré moţno dosiahnuť koncovým efektorom robota. Vyjadrené sú v kĺbových súradniciach. Konfigurácia je usporiadaná n-tica lokálnych súradníc polohy (q 1 q n ), ktorou je jednoznačne opísaná vzájomná poloha a orientácia všetkých článkov ramena efektorom. Poznáme dva typy konfigurácií: voľné (bezkolízne) sú dosiahnuteľné koncovým efektorom zakázané (kolízne) sú buď priamo obsadené prekáţkou alebo sú nedosiahnuteľné kvôli kolízii s prekáţkou niektorej časti robota 184
Obr. 4 Zjednodušené zobrazenie práce Leeho algoritmu 4 HĽADANIE CESTY POMOCOU MODIFIKOVANÉHO LEEHO ALGORITMU Hľadanie cesty spočíva v dvoch základných krokoch: 1. ohodnocovanie poľa konfigurácií 2. hľadanie cesty Samotné ohodnocovanie poľa konfigurácií prebieha podľa nasledovných bodov presne v takej postupnosti ako sú definované: 1. všetky voľné (bezkolízne) konfigurácie tvoria konfiguračné pole 2. východzia konfigurácia má hodnotu 0 3. všetkým susedným konfiguráciám s východzou sa priradí hodnota 1 4. všetkým neohodnoteným konfiguráciám susediacim s jednotkovými sa priradí hodnota 2 5. ohodnocovanie konfigurácií prebieha dovtedy, kým sa nedosiahne cieľová konfigurácia Platí, ţe hodnota čísla priradeného konfigurácii udáva dĺţku cesty, ktorá bola prejdená od východzej konfigurácie. Hľadanie cesty prebieha opačným smerom ako ohodnocovanie konfiguračného poľa podľa nasledovného postupu : 1. z kofigurácií susediacich s cieľovou sa vyberie tá, ktorej je priradená najmenšia hodnota 2. z konfigurácií susediacich s touto konfiguráciou sa vyberie opäť tá, ktorá má priradenú najmenšiu hodnotu 3. výber konfigurácií týmto spôsobom prebieha dovtedy, kým sa nedosiahne začiatočná V prípade, ak sa vyskytne viacero rovnako ohodnotených uzlov sa vyberá buď prvý nájdený alebo sa uplatňuje optimalizačné kritérium (napr. minimálny čas, energia a pod.). 185
Obr. 5 Ohodnocovanie poľa konfigurácií a hľadanie cesty Pod tvorbou poľa konfigurácií sa rozumie vytvorenie siete, v ktorej je umiestnená prekáţka. Samotné konfiguračné pole je tvorené ako závislosť natočenia (parametra) q 2 voči natočeniu (parametru) q 1. Preto prvoradou úlohou je vypočítanie hodnôt oboch natočení pre body tvoriace prekáţku a jej ochrannú zónu, aby bola zrejmá poloha prekáţky v konfiguračnom poli. Hodnoty q 1 a q 2 sa získajú pouţitím výsledných vzorcov dvoch dvojíc riešenia inverznej úlohy [6]. Obr. 6 Zobrazenie prekážky a ochrannej zóny v konfiguračnom poli: modrá čiara prekážka, červená čiara ochranná zóna, Z začiatočný bod, C cieľový bod [6] Pre obe riešenia je potrebné zostaviť v rámci konfiguračného poľa sieť samotných konfigurácií. Kaţdé riešenie má vytvorené svoje vlastné konfiguračné pole z dôvodu voľby 186
odlišných prírastkov v smere osí q1 a q2. Definovanie vzdialeností jednotlivých osí siete je dôleţité pre presné určenie hodnôt natočení q1 a q2 jednotlivých konfigurácií (bodov siete), pretoţe po nájdení optimálnej cesty okolo prekáţky sú tieto hodnoty vyuţité pre výpočet súradníc bodov, pouţitých pre programovanie pohybu robota. q 1 [ ] 140 130 q 2 [ ] Z C 120 110 100 90 80 Prekážka Začiatočný bod Koncový bod Ochranná zóna 70 60 50-95 -85-75 -65-55 -45-35 Obr. 7 Konfiguračné pole vrátane zobrazenej siete konfigurácií pre 1. riešenie polohy prekážky a jej ochrannej zóny v samotnom poli: modrá čiara prekážka, červená čiara ochranná zóna, Z začiatočný bod, C cieľový bod [6] V ďalšom postupe sa realizuje ohodnocovanie poľa konfigurácií, čím sa získajú ohodnotené polia konfigurácií, vhodné pre hľadanie cesty obchádzajúcej prekáţku [6]. 5 ZÁVER Plánovanie dráhy robota je jedným zo základných problémov v oblasti robotiky. Sú to hodiny strávené nad riešením bezpečnosti, vhodnosti, bezkolíznosti a presnosti vytváranej dráhy pohybu. Jednou zo súčastí plánovania je stopercentné obchádzanie prekáţok, teda zabezpečenie bezpečného pohybu priemyselného robota v akomkoľvek prostredí. Leeho algoritmus je pomerne jednoduchý spôsob, ako sa dá zabezpečiť bezkolízny pohyb priemyselného robota okolo prekáţky, ktorej poloha v pracovnom priestore priemyselného robota je známa. Je to jedna z metód, ktorá kombinuje výpočtové a grafické prvky pre určenie bezkolíznej dráhy pohybu priemyselného robota. Vhodne spája analýzu kinematickej štruktúry a výpočet transformačných matíc daného priemyselného robota s grafickým hľadaním dráhy obchádzajúcej prekáţku v konfiguračnom poli daného robota. Článok je vznikol na základe podpory Vedeckej grantovej agentúry MŠ SR na základe zmluvy č. VEGA 1/0670/15 a VEGA 1/0652/16. 187
LITERATÚRA [1] Skařupa, J. Mostýn, V.: Teorie průmyslových robotů. Košice: Vienala, 2000. 146 s. ISBN 80-88922-35-6. [2] Ceng, J. Krämer, S.: OOP-Project Maze Router with Lee Algorithm[online]. Aachen: Institute for Integrated Signal Processing Systems, 2007 [cit. 2010-05-10]. Dostupné na interenete: <http://www.oop.rwth-aachen.de/documents/oop-2007/sss-oop-2007.pdf>. [3] N-Nagy, F. Siegler, A.: Engineering foundations of robotics. Hertfordshire: Prentice- Hall International (UK), 1987. 263 p. ISBN 0-13-278805-5. [4] Katalóg robota YAMAHA YK400X od firmy YAMAHA MOTOR CO, LTD. [cit. 2010-05-10]. Dostupné na internete: <http://www.yamahamotor.co.jp/global/industrial/robot/ykx/std/yk400x/images/catalog.pdf>. [5] Angeles, J.: Fundamentals of Robotic Mechanical Systems (Theory, Methods, and Algorithms). Montreal: Springer, 2007. 549 p. ISBN 0-387-29412-0. [6] Hudec, M.: Obchádzanie prekáţok robotom -- aplikácia Leeho algoritmu na robot s kinematikou SCARA. STU Strojnícka fakulta v Bratislave. Diplomová práca. Vedúci práce: doc. Ing. Marian Králik, CSc., SjF-5254-40868, 2010. 188
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 Genéza geopolitických zón masmediálnych manipulácii vo vzťahu k perspektívnej 4. industriálnej revolúcii a k výchove ku kreativite Doc. PhDr. Jozef Darmo, CSc. Univerzita sv. Cyrila a Metoda v Trnave, Fakulta masmediálnej komunikácie [email protected] Abstract Obzor západných teórií v priestore mediálnej komunikácie. Obraz prítomnosti stredoeurópskeho teoretického myslenia v tomto priestore. Vývinové fázy civilizácie osnovou kapitalizmu a ateisticko-boľševickou partokraciou ideológii moci. Zápas o nový sociálny, komunikačný obraz civilizácie moci s ľudskou tvárou. Pád bipolarity sveta, moc a civilizácia v stratégiách nových delení moci. Tvár západnej ekonomickej demokracie. Dekódovanie európskeho komunikačného priestoru 1/. Rozumieme terapii našej súčasnej mediálnej reality? Zmeny hodnotovej filozofie médii 2/. Demokracia a či démonizácia? Snímanie občana z trónu klasickej demokracie 3/. Globalizácia ako obnovovanie skrytých reálií mediálnych manipulácii 4/. Globalizácia, integrácia, transformácia? Alebo nové delenie totality moci a neokolonizácie, zotročenia duchovnej podstaty civilizácie národov strednej, východnej Európy a Balkánu, zotročenie na hodnotu pracovnej sily Slovákov?! Kríza civilizácie, pat mocenských systémov násilia!? Kľúčové slová: media, geopolitics, creative education, civilization, production technology 1. ÚVOD Ak má mať táto konferencia aktívny poznávací prínos, tak by sa mala stať fórom obrazu a vecného dialógu: 1/ obzoru západných teórií v priestore mediálnej komunikácie, podstát ich hodnotových základov, pôsobenia v univerze súčasných civilizácií, a to so všetkou ich strategicko-manipulačnou výbavou; 2/ ten istý obraz mal by tu byť prítomný v prezentácii nášho, stredoeurópskeho bádateľského myslenia 7/, mediálnej vedy s jej historizmom v základoch 13/, s kriticko-analytickým poznaním.štúdiom vývoja mediálnych systémov v celom európskom kontexte krízou prechádzajúcej bipolarity sveta 14/. Naše mediálne systémy prešli mocensko-vývinovou osnovou kapitalizmu, ale aj ateisticko-boľševicko-partokratickou réţiou moci 15, 16/. Na poznaní oboch posledných vývinových fáz civilizácie kapitalizmu, partokraticky ideológiami zmanipulovaného socializmu, pokúsili sme sa v roku 1968 vystúpiť k civilizácií s ľudskou tvárou. Naša veda mala na pitevnom stole bez narkózy oba tieto mocensko-manipulačné systémy triedneho, sociálneho, ideologického, kapitálového, partokratického a mediokratického deštrukčného delenia, štvrtenia človeka, národov. Dospeli sme k poznaniu, ţe musíme skoncovať so systémami zotročovania človeka a národov. Minulosť však zostáva klenbou nášho súčasného civilizačného zdvihu k ľudskosti, k slobode 189
človeka a národov. Všetky doterajšie civilizačné systémy boli osnované na strete dobra a zla, lásky a nenávisti, dobra a zločinu, moci chamtivosti, moci nad ţivotom a nádejí víťazstva ţivota s absolútnou hodnotou ľudského bytia. Nachádzame sa v totálnej kríze nateraz posledných fáz civilizácie kapitalizmu osnovaného na mamone a ateisticko-boľševického systému moci deštrukcie duchovnej klenby bytia človeka, národov. Čo nám zostáva? Poznanie dobra a zla. Z tohto poznania vyplýva, ţe zdvihnutie ţeleznej opony nebolo oslobodením národov, človeka. Nebolo civilizačným zdvihom víťazstva dobra v bytí národov strednej a východnej Európy, Balkánu. Do priestoru bytia a ţitia týchto národov prevalila sa ničivá smršť uţ nami pretrpenej, ţivotmi zaţehnanej minulosti, moci v syntéze bermudského trojuholníka monetárneho kapitálu, s operátormi geopolitickej manipulácie: internacionalizovanej partokracie ovládajúcej politické systémy národných štátov a nadnárodnej mediokracie, ktorá ovláda globálne a uţ aj národné komunikačné koridory, operatívnu aktivitu mediálnych systémov. Tento trojuholník moci nad národmi je v podloţí súčasných globalizačných projekcií sveta. Je vrcholom rozvratu ľudskej civilizácie, národov a ich štátotvorného civilizačného bytia v identite svojich hodnotových základov a kultúr. Keď sa uţ zdvihla opona zla dostalo sa národom strednej, východnej Európy a Balkánu moţností vypovedať národom za oponou a pred oponou vlastnej komunikačnej izolácie a manipulácie? Mediálnej moţnosti vypovedať o svojom ţivote, o svojom pokuse stavby sociálne spravodlivejšej budúcnosti? Nie! V neţnom opare nasadili sa im na ústa treťosektorové náhubky hovorcov za občiansku spoločnosť! Mali moţnosť povedať tieto národy, kto im dávkoval drogy demencie, deštrukcie do srdcovo-cievneho systému komunikácie, spôsobujúce rozklad pokusu o spravodlivejší systém civilizácie s ľudskou tvárou? Poučili sa národy, na východe i západe vystavené tomuto experimentu zneuţívania moci na totálnu materiálnu a duchovnú demenciu v európskych a svetových komunikačných koridoroch a v systémoch mediálnej komunikácie národnej svojbytnosti, kultúrnej identity, identity národných štátov? Zaznamenali sme zneuţívanie moci na duchovný rozklad národov, ich vedomia a svedomia? Nadnárodná mediokracia v triumviráte svetovlády doslova vykopla brány našej mediálnej slobody. Zničili mediálne krytie našej slobody. Nie západ, nie neţná, my, generácie zápasu o demokraciu, slobodu sme porazili v roku 1968 moc ateistickoboľševickej partokracie so scenármi stratégov aj západnej svetovlády. My sme odpísali tento variant liberálno-partokratického totalitného zneuţívania moci! Národy si stavali svoj dom v osnove kresťanského, sociálne spravodlivého štátu, svojho domova. Jednoducho premenili svoje túţby po sociálne spravodlivej organizácii svojej národnej hmotnej a duchovnej existencie. Jednoducho premieňali utopické ideí, túţby a sny v realitu. Národy, občania stavali základy svojej budúcnosti. Slovom, v realitu premenili, zobrali z úst partokracie iba do hesiel a smerníc zabalené vízie a urobili ich realitou svojho činu. Len tak mohla vyplávať na povrch skutočná podstata liberálno-ateisticko-boľševicko-partokratickej moci s hrotom duchovného ubytia vykorisťovania národov. Duchovna ako podstaty v jeho jednote s materiálnym rozmerom ľudskej existencie. Stavanie gulagov ducha, bartolomejských nocí, nezakrylo takto skúšaným národom strednej, východnej Európy a Balkánu skutočnú podstatu tejto duchovnej manipulácie médiami, hrdelnými procesmi, ţalármi. Tento teror, popri likvidácii duchovnej prítomnosti Slovanov v európskom bytí, mal súčasne zdiskreditovať akýkoľvek pokus o zmenu sociálneho systému, reprezentovaného kapitalizmom. Dať 190
definitívu kapitalizmu. Zbaviť národ ilúzie zmeny nielen na východe, ale aj na západe. Neţná bola preto uţ len prevodom moci národmi porazenej moci ateisticko-boľševickej moci do príbytku odkiaľ vyšli. Do lona kapitalizmu. Tu je odpoveď na ponovembrové podoby našej transformácie. Prijímatelia odovzdanej moci ocenili ešte ústretovosť porazenej partokracie boľševizmom, jej podiel na inštalácii centier prevodu moci v opätovnom etablovaní slobodomurárskych lóţi, v eliminovaní katolicizmu duchovnej štátotvornej identity Slovákov v umiestnení treťosektorových, občanom nekontrolovateľných hniezd rozkladu identity národného štátu. Ocenili garnitúry mediálnej normalizácie. Sú uţ spoľahlivo v konštrukciách normalizovaných mediálnych sietí, ako experti, predstavitelia novinárskej organizácie, členovia nadnárodných medzinárodných novinárskych organizácií. Dokázali zuţitkovať zahraničnú pomoc v blokáde mediálnych koridorov Slovenska, mediálneho krytia jeho záujmov. Stroviť majetok všetkých novinárov. Pomohli rozprášiť pluralitu mediálnych systémov. Aktívne i mlčaním likvidovať slovenský mediálny výskum zánikom takmer 50-ročnej výskumnej inštitúcie Novinárskeho študijného ústavu. Rozkradnúť jeho bohaté dokumentačné fondy stredoeurópskeho a východoeurópskeho dokumentačnému centra AIERI. Aktivizmom členov zvonka organizovaného, v činnosti tajomného Mediálneho inštitútu neutralizovať dosiahnuté poznanie v oblasti slovenskej mediálnej vedy. Unikátna kniţnica ústavu celoslovenského významu, ktorá sa mala delimitovať do fondov Univerzitnej kniţnice aj s budovou jej moderného technického vybavenia na Pionierskej ulici ako samostatný fond k rozvoju a uţitiu rozvinutého mediálneho školstva, stala sa korisťou súkromnej akadémie pri Slovenskom syndikáte novinárov. Bez reptania mediálnych expertov predalo Ministerstvo kultúry SR na Štúrovej ulici budovu, kde sídlila redakcia Kultúrneho ţivota. Budovy tejto epopeje demokratizačného zdvihu slovenskej ţurnalistiky šesťdesiatych rokov. Naviac pamiatkovo chránenej. Na jej fasáde boli osadené tabule osobností slovenského novinárstva, publicistiky, ktoré sa zapísali do národnej pamäte zápasom o našu slobodu médií. Majiteľ ich beztrestne (išlo o kultúrnu pamiatku) odloţil do temna pivnice. Vie si niekto predstaviť odváţlivca, ţe by v rámci rekonštrukcie orýpal múry evanjelického lýcea s menami uţ legiend našej národnej histórie? Pozastavujeme sa nad tým, ako táto opätovná reštaurácia (pardon transformácia!) komerčného kapitalizmu odstavila v zóne opätovnej reštaurácie neokolonialnej moci celé generácie staršej, strednej generácie a z mladšej sa dostávajú k slovu iba tínedţeri z treťosektorových liahní? Pozastavujeme sa nad tým, ţe dnes v Európe, s poţehnaním EÚ, pokračuje neokoloniálny anšlus Európy? Ţe sa likviduje národnoštátna podstať národov? Ţe Slovensko uţ nie je vlasťou našich predkov, ale krajinou zahraničných investorov s cintorínom nášho ekonomického aktivizmu, gazdovania na svojom? Ţe sa likviduje naša kultúra. Kultúrne domy stávajú sa synagógami biblických čias vetešníctva, kupcov a nie boţieho slova, duše národa? Vari sme sa nepoučili z histórie? Z početných reformácií, reštaurácií pomoci po prehratých zápasoch svetlonosov pokroku, v osudových chvíľach národa? Máme správnu, našou dušou, naším srdcom, našou historickou pamäťou nastavenú optiku pohľadu na seba, na strednú Európu, Európu a svet? Vydávame svojou históriou pozitívne svedectvo o národe, sebe v generačnom zreťazení? Kto nám to píše históriu o sebe? Kedy a kde stratili Slováci jednotu optiky v súdoch a pohľade na seba? Dokáţeme ešte analyzovať, pochopiť tieto zlomy 191
tragického rozťatia jednoty duchovnej historickej klenby bytia národa. Dokáţeme opätovne s nekonfesionálnym nadhľadom pohliadnuť na obdobie reformácie s nekonfesionálnymi okuliarmi? Dokáţeme vidieť pozadie tejto historickej drámy. Tejto obrovskej, nie duchovnej, ale mocenskej manipulácie, ktorá sa odohrala na území Slovenska, na osudoch nášho národa s koncovkou cudzích záujmov moci? Pochopíme, ţe Slováci boli obeťou mocenských, vonkoncom nie duchovných cieľov so smršťou povstaní a krvavých obetí? A obete najvyššej straty historickej identity celistvosti klenby svojho duchovna. Teda jednoty? Národ rozpoltený v tom podstatnom v duchovnom skelete svojho bytia. Vypadli sme z dejín ako národ. Národ, ktorý na úsvite stredoveku mal uţ svoj štát, svoj jazyk v zaradení štvrtého liturgického, a tým aj európskeho jazyka, Jazyka ako plodu svojej prvej historickej kultúrotvornej syntézy. Jazyk skelet nášho kultúrotvorného zdvihu. Jazyk priestor príjmu inovácií kultúr iných národov. Jazyk písma, rétorickej a kniţnej komunikácie. Jazyk rétoriky siete kresťanských chrámov, kláštorov v sieti celoeurópskej komunikácie. Ríša Samova uţ dnes nie je ríšou Slovákov, ale Čechoslovanov. 18/ Veľká Morava bola Českým štátom, kde patrilo územie Česka, Moravy, Slovenska. Náhoda? Dokáţeme odkryť mocenské kódy revolúcií 18., 19. storočia? Dokáţeme geopolitickými kódmi odkryť tragédie prvej, druhej svetovej vojny, našich osudov v druhej, československej štátnosti 1818 1939, samostatnej (nie vojnovej!) štátnosti v Slovenskej republike 1939 1945. Dokáţeme odkryť skutočnú tvár a činy jej likvidátorov s dôsledkami povojnovej púte na Golgotu obetí? Nachádzame sa dnes s takto historickým poznaním očistenou, triezvou a nie emotívnou optikou, aby sme boli schopní odkryť kódy skrytých významov geopolitického bojiska nového delenia svetovlády nad Európou a svetom? To, čo je nepochybne prítomné v ovzduší tejto konferencie a čo je zrejmé uţ z prednesených vystúpení i tých, čo sú programované, ţe to, čo sme stihli preţiť a zaţiť po páde ţeleznej opony mediálnych demagógií a manipulácií, a to na oboch stranách opony, dáva nám k súčasnému poznaniu to podstatné: slobodu dialógu a svet sa stal v geopolitických mocenských hrách čitateľnejší. 2. DEKÓDOVANIE EURÓPSKEHO (SVETOVÉHO) KOMUNIKAČNÉHO PRIESTORU Čo je Európa? Čo je štát? Čo je národ? Čo je politika? Čo je úlohou politiky, posolstva médií: Zachovať, alebo premieňať svet. Čo je politika? Je to oblasť aktivizácie rozumu: Nie iba technicko-pragmatického ale morálneho aktivizmu. Lebo cieľom demokratickej štátnosti, a teda aj posledný cieľ kaţdej politiky, jej morálnej povahy, je to pokoj a spravodlivosť ako priestor existencie, sebarealizácie, tvorivosti človeka, národov, ich civilizačného sebavývinu. Teda politika by mala byť morálnym vedomím. (Ratzinger, J., 11.67) Inými slovami politika je o. i. racio na rozlišovanie toho, čo slúţi spravodlivosti a pokoju. (tamţe) A práve toto má politika (a kultúrno-antropologický architekt duchovného skeletu civilizácie médiá) sledovať, upevňovať, obhajovať pred zatemňovaním, ktoré zniţuje rozlišovaciu schopnosť rozumu. (tamţe) Je partokratický aktivizmus dvadsiateho storočia a nástupu tretieho tisícročia, dokonca uţ internacionálne prepojený v systém globálnej moci, aktivizmom národno-štátotvorného typu a zodpovednosti? Partokracia v štatúte hovorcu svetovládcu vlastníkov monetárneho kapitálu a ňou mixovaný pravo-ľavý, stredo-pravo ľavoľavý 192
stranícky ideologický duch uţ naviac nie je politikov zodpovednosti, štátotvornosti. Je to agregát manipulácie. Stranícky duch, ktorý sprevádza moc, bude ustavične vytvárať mýty rozmanitých foriem, ktoré sa predstavujú ako skutočná cesta mravnej reality v politike, hoci v skutočnosti ide o maskovanie a zakrývanie moci. (tamţe, 67 68) Moci vlastníkov monetárneho kapitálu. V 19. a 20. storočí sme zaţili dve veľké mytologické konštrukcie so strašnými dôsledkami: 1/ Liberálny kapitalizmus trhu, monetárnej, lupičskej mamony vlastníctva s dôsledkami prepadu ľudstva na bohatých a masovú chudobu. Kultúrno-antropologický prepad s fázou ničenia kultúr národov, ich vyhladzovania v koloniálnej a neokoloniálnej vlne nastolovania svetovládnej globálnej moci. Moci s manipulačným arzenálom násilia, mediálnych manipulácií rodiaceho sa duchovného impéria svetovej mediokracie. Inventár? Rasizmus, nacizmus, fašizmus, neokolonizácia Európy dvoma krvavými svetovými vojnami, duchovným temnom studenej vojny, ktorá v nástupe tretieho tisícročia prechádza do fázy totálnej krízy tejto liberárno-kapitalistickej konštrukcie neokoloniálne globalizovanej civilizácie. 2/ Rozčesnutie národov na hŕstku bohatých a milióny okradnutých národov primälo svetovládne centrály k projektom eliminácie rizík zdvihov odporu z majetnosti vydedených más, ba celých národov. Nachádzame sa pri zdroji partokratického štvrtenia sociálneho aktivizmu národov. Inscenovania partokratických rozporov. Mocenskej infiltrácie do týchto partokratických štruktúr s cieľom mať ich pod kontrolou. Základňou tejto manipulačnej emisie sa stalo zboţstvenie revolúcie 19. a 20. storočia. Samozrejme: zboţstvenie bez Boha. Tento manipulačný projekt dostáva do vienka projekt odkresťančenia Európy. Likvidáciu globálneho morálneho vplyvu, presnejšie zrkadlenia moci v kresťanskom zrkadle etiky a morálky mocnárov sveta. Duchovný rozvrat národov, ubitie ich duchovného priestoru, vnútornej slobody. Zrazenie národov do ţivočíšnosti bytia malo eliminovať odpor voči sociálnej nerovnosti. Eliminovať morálnu kontrolu násilia. Diskvalifikovať projekty utopického socializmu. Zmeniť v utópie snahy ľudstva, národov o sociálnu pozemskú sociálnu spravodlivosť, slobodu ducha. Sme teda pri zrode zboţstvenia revolúcie, proletárskeho internacionalizmu na pozadí historického dialektického materializmu, ateisticko-partokratického revoluciorizmu, partokratickej, nie stavovskej, občianskej osnovy demokracie národných štátov. Demokracie ideologického štvrtenia duchovného a ideologického štvrtenia sociálneho človeka. Cieľ: neutralizácie jeho sociálneho aktivizmu, usmerňovania tohto aktivizmu v partokratickom a v masovom mediálnom balení. Obe tieto civilizačné konštrukcie liberalizmu a ateisticko-boľševicko-partokratickej ideologizovanej moci sú symbiózou siamského dvojčaťa. To podstatné mali spoločné: vymazali pôvodné mravné intuície človeka o dobré a zle. Posilniť všetko, čo slúţi nadvláde rasy (tamţe, 11), majetnosti, zisku, ideologizovanej triednosti nastolenia moci. Čo slúţilo, dodnes slúţi nastoleniu budúcnosti liberálneho kapitalizmu a jeho expozitúram manipulácií internacionálam svetovej ateisticko-boľševickej partokracie, mediálnemu priemyslu svetovej nadnárodnej mediokracie. Čo v súhrne slúţi zachovaniu moci je dobré a morálne. Civilizačný variant liberálneho kapitalizmu nachádza sa však v štádiu krízy týchto dvoch ideológií liberalizmu a ateistického boľševizmu osnovaného na ideológií. Táto globalizovaná realita dnes, ba celé 20. storočie zasahuje oblasť komunikačných koridorov sveta 17/. A tu zisťujeme doslova ideologický, hodnotový chaos. Ideológie uţ nemoţno 193
prezentovať v pôvodných významoch. Mocenskopolitické hry prešli do podpalubia. Po páde týchto dvoch ideológií (konštrukcii bipolarity sveta, pozn. J. D.) sa dnes politické mýty prezentujú menej jasným spôsobom (11, 68). Liberálny kapitalizmus so svojím dedičstvom neokoloniálnej, imperiálnej manipulácie a ateisticko-boľševickej, stalinskej manipulácie svetom prostriedkami násilia moci, politickej propagandy studenej vojny, dvoch svetových vojen, permanentných malých vojen (Vietnam, Kórea, Afganistan, Irak, Palestína, Juhoslávia s Kosovom, Lýbia, infiltrovaný mocenský aktivizmus na Ukrajine, v Bielorusku, v Sýrii, neţné prevraty moci v strednej Európy) s totálnym hodnotovým prepadom slobôd národov, agónie biedy, slovom civilizácia supermajetnosti vyvolených a bieda miliónov, je v agónii. Túto agóniu dnes zakrýva v politike a v mediálnych manipuláciách novými podobami mýtizovania skutočných hodnôt, ktoré vyzerajú dôveryhodne, práve preto, ţe sa zakotvujú do pravých hodnôt, a ktoré práve preto sú nebezpečné, ţe zjednostraňujú tieto hodnoty spôsobom, ktorý moţno definovať ako mýtický. (11, 68) Dnes na obelisku svetovej propagandy, mediálnych manipulácií, mediokratických rošád debilizácie publika a národov sveta je zakrývanie skutočných veľmocenských ašpirácií inscenovanie náboţenských stretov svetových náboţenstiev, záľudná deštrukcia kresťanstva osobitne katolicizmu, ktorý si zachováva svoju morálnu suverenitu zrkadla svetovládnej moci a ochrany skutočnej hodnoty ţivota, práva na ţivot. Nekotví v statkoch tohto sveta. Jeho kráľovstvo totiţ nie je z tohto sveta ale večnosti. Je spolupútnikom človeka, národov na púti časnosti tohto pozemského sveta. V slovníkoch internacionalizovanej monetárskej sluţby partokracie preto dominujú tri hodnoty, ktorých mýtické zjednostraňovanie zároveň predstavuje nebezpečenstvo pre dnešné morálne vedomie. Týmto tromi hodnotami, ktoré sa neustále mýticky zjednodušujú, sú pokrok, veda, sloboda. (11, 68) A to všetko na pozadí totálnej démonizácie socializmu, komunizmu. Nie ako ideologickej, ateisticko-boľševickej ideológie moci, ale duchovného bytia človeka, národov. Tá je totiţ z monetárnej duchovnej dielne liberalizmu. Démonizáciou skutočných zločinov tejto monetárno-murárskej ideológie sa v projektoch liberalizmu mali a majú zdiskreditovať práve sociálne projekty civilizačného zdvihu ľudstva. Civilizačný duchovný zdvih, ktorý mal prekonať vo vývinových dôsledkoch civilizačnú fázu liberálno-ateisticko-boľševickej moci majetnosti, triednosti, sociálnej nespravodlivosti, ideologickej duchovnej deštrukcie človeka a národov mal sa práve násilím likvidovať. Pokrok bol, je odjakţiva v despotických, vykorisťovateľských vládnych, štátnych systémoch mýtickým slovom. V mene pokroku ako normy politického a všeobecne ľudského konania sa etablovali všetky despotické totalitné mocenské konštrukcie. Pokrokom, mýtickým pokrokom ozdobovali si a ozdobujú si moc, seba najbezohľadnejší diktátori, kolonizátori, dobyvatelia sveta. Zločin prizdobený najvyššou morálnou kvalifikáciou. (11, 68) Isteţe, za posledné 19. a 2%. storočie sa dosiahli významné výsledky v rozvoji prírodných vied, nových výrobných technológií, v poznaní vedy, kultúry, umení, v komunikológii vôbec. Ale badáme a dnes citeľne poznávame dvojznačnosť tohto pokroku na totálnej devastácii prírody. Dokonca ohrozenia ţivota človeka, celých národov v ich genetických kódoch. Teda totálna telesná i duchovná, uţ ţivoty ohrozujúca manipulácia. Zostáva teda otázka: Aký pokrok? Podľa akých a koho kritérií? Jedno musí byť pri poloţení si tejto otázky jasné, a to, ţe pokrok sa prejavuje vo vzťahu človeka k materiálnemu svetu, ale ako taký nevytvára ako učí marxizmus a liberalizmus nového človeka, novú spoločnosť. Človek ako človek ostáva rovnaký v primitívnych podmienkach, ako aj v podmienkach 194
technicky vyspelých a jeho úroveň sa nezvyšuje jednoducho len preto, ţe sa naučil pouţívať lepšie vyvinuté nástroje. (11, 69) Pre súčasné generácie napr. internet. Ľudské bytie sa v kaţdom človeku začína odznova. Preto nemôţe existovať definitívne nová, pokroková a zdravá spoločnosť, v ktorú dúfali nielen veľké ideológie, ale ktoré sa stále viac stáva potom, čo bola zlikvidovaná nádej v druhý svet všeobecným cieľom, po ktorom všetci túţia. Definitívne zdravá spoločnosť by predpokladala koniec slobody. (11, 69) Súčasná agónia mýtov liberálneho kapitalizmu, chaosu s tragickými dôsledkami totálnej krízy všetkého a vo všetkom, je toho výrečným dôkazom. Totálna nesloboda, manipulácia vojensko-strategická, spravodajsko-policajná, ekonomická, sociálna symbiózou moci súkromnej majetnosti kapitálu, nadnárodne internacionalizovanej partokracie s mýtickými ideológiami politickej manipulácie a s nadnárodným mediálnym riečiskom mediálneho priemyslu nadnárodnej mediokracie, prekonáva všetky doterajšie kombinácie totalitných praktík manipulácie človekom a celými národmi, štátmi, kontinentmi v globalite sveta. Kam aţ dospel tento medzinárodný, dokonca uţ globalizovaný teror revolučných importov do strednej Európy, do Juhoslávie s koncovkou Kosova, v Egypte, v Lýbii, Iraku, v Afganistane, v Sýrii, s pokusmi etablovať tento dobyvačný scenár na Ukrajine, v Bielorusku, v Ruskej federácii? Keďţe ani toto násilie neslávi konečný úspech, kombinujú sa tieto brachiálne nástroje moci operáciami v duchovnom priestore človeka, národov, rozbitím celistvosti ich duchovnej klenby bytia v kresťanských, náboţenských hodnotách. Tam totiţ zostáva človek, národ, napriek totalitným tlakom, vnútorne slobodný. Postaviť národy v tejto oblasti do konfliktov. Eliminovať kresťanstvo v Európe od praktík moci, aby cez jeho zrkadlo morálky, etiky neboli viditeľné zločiny moci. Vzostup protestov v celom svete proti súčasnej totalite moci ukazuje, ţe človek, národy zostávajú slobodné práve vo svojej duchovnej klenbe bytia. Obroda tejto slobody začína odznova v kaţdej generácii. Nastupujúcim generáciám je jasné, ţe sú a môţu byť slobodné iba vo svojom duchovnom priestore. Preto sa tieţ treba vţdy znovu usilovať o spravodlivú formu spoločnosti v stále nových podmienkach. (11, 69 71). Ako imperatív svojho postoja, konania musia si uchovať vedomie, ţe oblasťou kaţdej monetárne, triedne motivovanej politiky moci je prítomnosť a nie budúcnosť! Budúcnosť len do takej miery, do akej sa aj dnešná politika snaţí hľadať (či iba predstierať) formy práva a sociálneho zmieru, duchovného mieru slobôd, ktoré by mohli platiť aj v budúcnosti. To však ale znamená, ţe legitimitu má taká politika, ktorá nie je vizionárstvom, sľubmi, ale politika, ktorá pokračuje a stavia na tom, čo sa uţ dosiahlo (11, 70) a čo môţe zaručiť! Slovom súčasné generácie, obzvlášť tie, čo vstupujú do reálneho ţivota, nie toho virtuálneho, internetového, v zrkadlách bulváru, so štupľami v ušiach, ţe je veľmi dôleţité mať na zreteli tieto hranice pokroku a vyhnúť sa falošných účinkov (sľubov) do budúcnosti. (11, 70) To isté platí aj o pojme slobody, tak vyuţívaného, a tak manipulovaného v mediálnom šrotovníku manipulácií človekom a národmi. Dnes tento pojem nadobudol, akoţe v epoche modernosti, občianskej spoločnosti priam grandiózne mýtické črty. Sloboda sa dnes chápe ako stav anarchie, kaţdý má právo robiť, čo sa mu zachce. Sloboda zbavená okov, väzieb na rodinu, národ a jeho štátne bytie, na vlasť predkov. Také chápanie inštinktívnosti slobody implantuje sa mediálne do vedomia nastupujúcich generácií. Sloboda vnímaná jednoducho protinštitucionálne, a tak sa stáva (iba) idolom. Ľudská sloboda môţe byť vţdy len slobodou spravodlivého vzájomného vzťahu, slobodou v spravodlivosti, inak sa stáva klamstvom a vedie do otroctva. (11, 70 71) 195
Na tomto mieste a v tejto súvislosti, či v súvislostiach povedaného na tejto konferencii treba spomenúť sféru aktivít, ktoré majú dočinenia s poznaním, s identifikáciou, s vedeckou identifikáciou svojho miesta novinárstva, masmédií v spoločnosti a projekcie tohto miesta v spoločnosti. Je to sféra masmediálneho poznania, teda úloh a postavenia mediálnej vedy, systémovej vedy komunikológie v našej reflexii masmediálneho diania. A v tejto oblasti aj poznania a posolstva zároveň, ktoré kultúrna antropológia prisúdila sfére komunikácie, komunikológii, mediovede ako skeletu architektúry, katedrály ako priestoru duchovného bytia národa, národov pohybu špirálou civilizácie. Práve študovaná história svetovej a slovenskej ţurnalistiky ako civilizačného, duchovného aktivizmu je pre nás príleţitosťou, aby sme sa zoznámili s veľkým dobrodením, akými veda a média v kaţdej ľudskej komunikácii sú. Bez komunikácie, tohto srdcovo-cievneho systému (nie iba sluţby) je katedrála civilizácie, civilizácii nemysliteľná. (2, 287 288) Média boli dobrodením, ak boli formou kontrolovanej a skúsenosťou potvrdenej racionality. (11, 70) Ale jestvujú aj patologické prejavy vedy (médií), keď sa zneuţívajú jej (ich) moţnosti v prospech moci, a keď sa zároveň napáda dôstojnosť človeka. (11, 70) Dokonca celých národov, civilizácií. Príkladov, keď médiá slúţili neľudskosti, zbavovaniu slobody človeka, jeho viery, dokonca jeho sociálnej a fyzickej existencie je v histórii kolonializmu, vojnovej propagandy, fašizmu, úrekom. (3) Z tohto poznania vyplýva jediné poučenie: Aj média musia podliehať mravným kritériám a ich pravá povaha sa vţdy stráca, keď sa namiesto sluţby dôstojnosti človeka (dajú) k dispozícii moci alebo obchodu, alebo jednoducho úspechu ako jedinému kritériu. (11, 70) Zaţívame v politickej demagógii a mediálnej propagande doslova explóziu kúzlení s pojmami demokracia, sloboda, pluralita, globalizácia, integrácia. Pojmy, ktoré práve v tejto dobe nadobudli mýtické črty. Keďţe s realitou nemajú uţ nič spoločné, stávajú sa pre nastupujúce generácie idolom a pre generácie so ţivotnou skúsenosťou ideologizovanou fraškou, ak nie tragédiou národa a národov. Osobitne pre národy, ktoré sa posunuli civilizáciou, civilizačnou špirálou vyššie nad liberálno-kapitalistické a ateistickoboľševické partokratické ústrojenstvo moci k spoločenstvám národov s ľudskou tvárou. Súčasné ateizmom v duchu devastované národy strednej, východnej Európy a Balkánu nie sú svojou skúsenosťou, obeťami nastavené misijnému aktivizmu západnej pseudodemokracie, pseudoslobody, pseudoblahobytu, nadnárodnému bahnu mediálneho priemyslu nadnárodnej mediokracie s biznisom mediálneho trhu a platených, podplatených mediálnych sluţieb. Áno, aţ na tomto pozadí historického, reálneho poznania nadobúdajú reálne výzvy demokracie, slobody, reálne obsahy vnímania. Ľudská sloboda môţe byť vţdy len slobodou spravodlivého vzájomného vzťahu, slobodou v spravodlivosti, inak sa stáva klamstvom a vedie do otroctva. (11, 70 71) Dokedy? Sociálny, duchovný prepad národov strednej, východnej Európy a Balkánu po invázii západného výkladu slobody a demokracie po neokoloniálnom trhovom anšluse, cunami totálneho zničenia, privatizačného vyplienenia a zruinovania národných ekonomík po roku 1989 dáva svedectva tragédií a obţaloby zároveň. Škola dejín, etiky monetárnej moci kapitálu s ešalónom internacionalizovanej partokracie a nadnárodnej mediokracie, aká nemá v dejinách páru za ţivota jednej generácie adolescentov. Realita ţivota, ktorá strháva masku západných manipulačných mýtov. Súčasná kríza je kľúčom odmýtologizovania týchto globalizovaných mýtov, o demokracii a slobode, pokroku. Je to však kľúč uţ v rukách národov? V rukách etiky novinárskeho posolstva? V rukách nekomerčných verejnoprávnych médií? Je to pre národy kľúč ich 196
návratov k historickej pamäti, k identite svojho bytia, k sebaúcte vlastnej a iných národov? K sebaúcte, úcte a nie nenávisti, tohto produktu zneuţívanej moci, moci rozdeľovania a znepriateľovania národov, ako aj mediálneho nástroja moci nad národmi, ich vykorisťovania. Drţať pevne v rukách tento kľúč to ale predpokladá, ţe tieto národy musia opäť raz strhnúť masku mýtu, ktorý nás stavia pred poslednú rozhodujúcu otázku rozumnej politiky. (Tamţe, 1) A to kategóriu pojmu demokracie v definovaní moci väčšiny voči menšine. Či to, ţe rozhodne väčšina je demokratické. Stávame sa totiţ svedkami mafióznych vyrábaní prefabrikátov väčšiny rôznych partokratických koaličných spiknutí. No, ako sa dajú spoznať... hodnoty, ktoré tvoria základ kaţdej rozumnej a morálne spravodlivej politiky a ktoré zaväzujú všetkých bez ohľadu na zmenu väčšiny? Aké sú tieto hodnoty? Štátne doktríny v staroveku, v stredoveku, ako aj v sporoch modernej epochy sa odvolávali na prirodzené právo, ktoré dokáţe rozlíšiť recta ratio. Ale dnes recta ratio uţ akoby nedáva odpoveď a prirodzený zákon sa uţ nechápe ako to, čo je evidentné pre všetkých, ale skôr ako zvláštna katolícka náuka. To značí krízu politického vedomia, čo zodpovedá kríze politiky ako takej. Zdá sa, ţe existuje uţ len stranícke vedomie a nie vedomie spoločné všetkým ľuďom, aspoň vo veľkých základných hodnotových ustanoveniach. (11, 71 72) Dilema súčasnej krízy civilizácie s krízou srdcovo-cievneho systému komunikácie tejto civilizácie je ukotvená pred verejnosťou skrytej a politicky, mediálne skrývanej diagnóze. Aţ tak, ţe rozum sa uţ začína hlasito ozývať proti moci a straníckemu duchu. (11, 70) Proti liberálno-monetárnemu, partokratickému a mediokratickému komplotu svetovládnej moci. Proti manipulovaným pozmeneniam kánonu hodnôt, ktorý sa prakticky nespochybňuje, ale v skutočnosti je príliš neurčitý a obsahuje temné oblasti. (11, 70) Čo je v arzenáloch súčasnej svetovládnej geopolitickej moci v sluţbe pokoja národov a sveta? Čo je to v jej transkripcii spravodlivosť? Čo sú to všeobecne uznávané hodnoty... rovnosť ľudí proti rasizmu, rovnaká dôstojnosť pohlaví, sloboda myslenia a viery? (11, 72) Stávame sa svedkami cielených manipulácií, zahmlievania ich jasnosti z hľadiska obsahu (11, 72) rétorickým a mediálnym oparom. Dokonca ich nové reinterpretácie v prefabrikátoch mediokratického mediálneho priemyslu stávajú sa dokonca novou hrozbou proti slobode myslenia a viery (11, 72) človeka, národov. A čo právo na ţivot pre kaţdú ľudskú bytosť, neporušiteľnosť ľudského ţivota vo všetkých jeho fázach? Stačí pohľad do našich médií, médií na západe. V mene slobody a v mene vedy sa tomuto právu zasadzujú stále ťaţké rany. (11, 72) Stávame sa svedkami strát kaţdého práva, úcty k človeku a k jeho dôstojnosti. Uţ je slobodou zosmiešniť to, čo je pre druhých posvätné... u nás si nikto nemôţe dovoliť vysmievať sa tomu, čo je posvätné pre ţidov alebo moslimov. Je to morálne a eticky správne! Ale medzi základné práva na slobodu sa vkradlo právo posmievať sa a robiť si vtipy z toho, čo je posvätné pre kresťanov. (11, 73) Kampane proti katolicizmu, obzvlášť tomu slovenskému, uţ nemajú ţiadnych zábran aj v slovenských mediokratických médiách. V slovenskej politológii, historiografii sa to hemţí slovenským antiklerikalizmom, dištancom katolicizmu, teda slovenského národa z politiky tejto krajiny! Túto časť našich úvah moţno uzavrieť konštatovaním: Dostali sme sa ku genéze geopolitických zón masmediálnych manipulácií a zdrojov a cieľov mediálneho aktivizmu nadnárodne národných svetových a európskych mediokracií v ovládaní komunikačných koridorov mediálnej manipulácie. 197
3. ROZUMIEME TERAPII NAŠEJ SÚČASNEJ MEDIÁLNEJ REALITY? Čo je typické pre súčasné komunikačné teórie? Ich pohľad sa zameriava výlučne na novú dobu. Týmto prístupom sa predchádzajúci vývoj historickej komunikácie, jej podstaty, zmyslu, postavenia v telesnosti špirály kultúrno-antropolitickej homogenizácie civilizácie anticipuje viac-menej ilustratívne. Teda iba týmto prístupom sa fenomén komunikácie či pohľadu aj na mediálnu komunikáciu začína meniť. Do popredia sa preto dostávajú iba aspekty, ktorých podstata z historickej retrospektívy, pre pochopenie súčasnosti a budúcnosti tak dôleţitej, zostáva zastretá prítmím. Vypadli, a to zámerne, z poľa pozornosti také otázky, ako: 1/ Kultúrno-antropologické konštanty komunikácie ako komunikácie bytia civilizačných buniek rodiny, kmeňov, národov; 2/ Hodnotovo-civilizačná, humanizačná, sociokultúrna funkcia komunikácie v jej kultúrno-antropologickom vývine, význame; 3/ Zastreté zostávajú otázky slobody komunikácie a práva na komunikáciu ako základného tribútu jestvovania, vývinu telesnosti, duchovného bytia civilizácie vôbec; 4/ Zahmlieva sa rola vlastníka média, mediálnych systémov. Likvidáciou autokratického, partokratického, autoritársko-totalitného modelu informačnej politiky ako sa realizáciou pluralizmu vlastníctva média (zakrývaného táraním o pluralizme médií v názorovej a postojovej zloţke) riešil problém mediálnej slobody. Médiá dnes, namiesto partokracie, diriguje vlastník médií s pozadím moci svetovládneho trojuholníka monetárneho kapitálu s operátormi mocenských manipulácii človekom, národmi, občanmi internacionalizovanej a ideologicky štruktorovanej partokracie a mediálnym priemyslom vládnucej nadnárodnej mediokracie. Stávame sa svedkami globálnej centralizácie a unifikácie svetovládnej moci vlastníkov kapitálu s účinným portfóliom partokratických a mediálnych manipulácií. Mediačný priestor globálnej komunikácie oslobodený od hodnôt a záujmov národov. Demontáţ národných štátov, ich premena na provincie operátorov tínedţerov zahraničných investorov. Návrat k provinčnému regionalizmu s vygumovaním národov, pozbavenia ich vlasti predkov, ich národného vedomia, identifikovaného s uţ privatizáciami rozkradnutého historického územia bytia. Cesty mocenských manipulácií: a/ Oslabenie štátov a ich vplyvu na legitímnom území národov. Deštrukcia týchto štátov tzv. demokratickou deštrukciou homogenity štátnosti s posilnením decentralizácie, regionalizácie. Následne posilňovať samostatnosť týchto regiónov väzbami na regióny štátov veľmocí. Cez tieto veľmociam vlastné, centrálne mocensky riadené regióny ovládať priestor veľmocenskej integrácie mimo kontroly národných štátov. Podporovať inštitút budovania priamych expozitúr regiónov ovládaných štátov priamo v Bruseli; b/ Ovládnuť ekonomický, kultúrny, vedecký potenciál týchto mocensky geopoliticky integrovaných štátov, oslabovať štátnoobčiansku správu a politickú suverenitu národných štátov; c/ Ovládnuť ich mediálne systémy. Zbaviť národné štáty mediálneho krytia ich záujmov, politiky a medzinárodných suverénnych väzieb. Manipulácia médií, likvidácia ich plurality, ovládnutie nadnárodnými mediokraciami. Zriadenie nadnárodných treťosektorových Mediálnych inštitútov, Katedier nezávislej ţurnalistiky ako expozitúr monitorovania 198
mediálnych priestorov národných štátov strednej a východnej Európy v projekte globalizačnej, mocenskej stratégie. Monitoring novinárov a ich klasifikácia pouţiteľnosti v strategických projektoch ovládnutia mediálnych systémov štátov. Likvidácia historicky budovaného základu mediálnej vedy, vedeckého výskumu vôbec. Prevod výskumu do treťosektorových na svetovládne centrá napojených inštitútov mediálneho výskumu a operačných sociologických a sociopsychologických prieskumov verejnej mienky. Na Slovensku to bola likvidácia Novinárskeho študijného ústavu, rozkradnutia jeho takmer 50- ročných dokumentačných fondov a scudzenie jeho jedinečnej kniţnice súkromnou školou. A to všetko s podporou inštalovaných vládnych kruhov v nadnárodnom scenári normalizačných elít poniektorých ţurnalistov. Totálna likvidácia historického vedomia ţurnalistiky. Vedomostnou potravou početných novinárskych škôl, marketingovej komunikácie (uţ nie osvety ), stali sa takmer výlučne západné komerčné teórie mediálnej manipulácie. Nepracuje sa prioritne s hodnotnými vedeckými dielami západného kritického mediálneho myslenia. O našom domácom bádateľskom bohatstve ani nehovoriac. Dedičstve historickej mediálnej pamäte nemá prioritu ; d/ Programové ničenie duchovného skeletu národov Európy, autority a ţivota inštitútu rodiny (interupcie, povyšovanie zväzkov homosexuálov na štatút rodiny), deštrukcia národov. Národy s aktivizmom prejavovania národnej identity sú vykázané do sféry potencionálneho terorizmu; e/ Priam programovo sa uţ v printových médiách, v elektronických médiách, ovládaných nadnárodnými monopolmi mediokracie, fixujú v publiku symboly a mýty zaloţené na ľahko prístupnej operatívnosti. Profesia operátora je zameranie, ktoré scenár totalitnej svetovlády potrebuje! Cieľ v médiách vytvárať, prezentovať publiku okamţite jeho postoje motivujúce typy, idoly celebrít. Inými slovami, sleduje sa cieľ redukovať na minimum individuálnosť a konkrétnosť skúseností i predstáv, ktoré by nabádali človeka z publika túto skúsenosť aj vyuţiť a prenášať do reality. Všetky tieto manipulačné metódy nemajú viesť u človeka k vzniku sebaobraných reakcií. Naopak. Otupiť v človeku mechanizmus inštinktu sebazáchovy. Zabávať sa, nechať sa baviť, informovať o banalitách. Nemusieť pritom vynaloţiť nijakú energiu. Dať sa vtiahnuť do vzrušenia na čas presne vymedzený programom, samozrejme, determinovaným peňaţenkou či stratou svojej dôstojnosti a identity. 4. ZMENY HODNOTOVEJ FILOZOFIE V MEDIÁLNOM PRIESTORE Zlievanie moci monetárneho kapitálu, internacionalizovanej partokracie a mediokracie je prahom súčasnej krízy. Nie iba trhu, ekonomiky, médií, ale celej civilizácie súčasných dejín ľudstva. Šrotovacia terapia túto civilizáciu nevylieči. Liberálny kapitalizmus vyčerpal svoje zdroje inovácií. Realita v masmediálnej oblasti je pesimistická. 1/ Printové médiá, okrem malých marginálnych torz, sú uţ majetkovo a manipulačnou réţiou obsahu v rukách nadnárodných mediokratických monopolov. Teda pod kontrolou mozgu monetárneho kapitálu a pod kontrolou nadnárodných národných záujmov, a to uţ nielen iba komerčných. Slovenské médiá sú oslobodené od sledovania slovenských 199
národnoštátnych priorít, či od sluţby slovenským záujmom. Dostalo sa im dokonca pocty od reportérov bez hraníc udelením 3. miesta v rebríčku najslobodnejších médií. Aký to kontrast s výrokom iste nie nerozhľadeného mediálneho experta Moderátori uţ nemoderujú, len udeľujú slovo... Rozum a vedomosti boli nahradené imidţom, schopnosť dobre písať schopnosťou veľa písať. Na dosiahnutie novinárskeho výslnia uţ netreba vedieť tvoriť, stačí strojovo produkovať. Netreba čítať, pamätať si a uvaţovať... vlastníci médií rozhodujú, s kým do redakcie prídu a s kým nie... A je to poníţenie, za ktoré si môţeme sami. Pretoţe sme neboli hrdí a solidárni, ale radodajní. Kríza slovenských médií je ešte väčšia neţ kríza transformačnej politiky, z ktorej sa povýšene smejeme. 2/ A elektronické médiá súkromné i tie verejnoprávne? Stačí sa pozrieť do programovej ponuky po prijatí zákona o duálnom vysielaní dnes. Aj laik zistí ten priepastný rozdiel, doslova hodnotový prepad. 3/ Kto má chrániť a zaručovať informačnú identitu Slovenskej republiky v agentúrnom spravodajstve. Médiá sú v rukách cudzích inštitúcií. 4/ Bol zlikvidovaný uţ spomínaný základný národný, národnoštátny mediálny výskum, zlikvidovaný jeho širokospektrálne budovaný archív pramennej dokumentácie. Takmer päťdesiat rokov budovaná, z celoslovenského a stredoeurópskeho rozmeru jedinečná odborná masmediálna kniţnica i budova Novinárskeho študijného ústavu sa dostali na základe verejnosti neznámej manipulácie do aktivovaného priestoru pripravovanej súkromnej mediálnej inštitúcie (!) Kde sa prepadol archív ústavu aj s jeho fondmi?! Likvidáciou Novinárskeho študijného ústavu monitorovanie mediálneho priestoru sa stalo totiţ manipulačnou záleţitosťou treťosektorových operácií. Výskumne scudzený mediálny priestor je uţ plne pod kontrolou nadnárodne sa etablujúcej geopolitickej moci s médiami vo vlastníctve mediokracie. 5/ Komunikačný priestor, ktorý bol predovšetkým duchovným priestorom komunikácie, civilizačných duchovných inovácií človeka a naberá kurz komercializácie aţ duchovnej, morálnej etickej devastácie. 6/ Dochádza k spojeniu komunikačných výkonov a rôznych špecifických vlastností, komunikačných potenciálov rôznych médií. Zásadným spôsobom sa mení ich pôvodný komunikačný kód. ZÁVER Hovoriť o postavení médií v čase krízy a prosperity nemoţno iba ako o časovo aktuálne podmienenom jave. Rovnako, ţe ho moţno vyriešiť v krátkom časovom priestore ekonomickými operáciami trhu s naštartovaním opätovnej prosperity. Máme do činenia nie iba s krízou trhu, ale s krízou civilizácie. V anatomickom zmysle slova kaţdá civilizácia predstavuje organizmus. V tomto organizme tvoria médiá jeho koronárny systém, energiu srdca, koridory ciev, ktorými prúdi energia spoločnosti zásobujúca mozog, jeho rozvetvené mozgové tkanivo. Poškodenie mozgu znefunkčňuje aj koronárny systém organizmu a naopak. Bulvarizačné prieniky sú ako metastázy v koronárnom mediálnom systéme, informačná arytmia srdca komunikácie poukazuje na nebezpečenstvo mozgového infarktu civilizácie. Snaţili sme sa aspoň čiastočne otestovať súčasnú diagnózu tohto koronárneho mediálneho systému. 200
LITERATÚRA [1] Darmo, Jozef: Dôsledky globalizácie na mediálnu politiku. In: Veda, média a politika. Zborník z konferencie. Veda, vyd. SAV, Bratislava 2008, s. 18 32 [2] Darmo, Jozef: Hodnotové zlomy európskej ţurnalistiky. In: Renovatio spiritualis. Zborník Libri Historiae Slovaciae Scriptores. Vydavateľstvo Lúč, Bratislava, roč. V. 2003, s. 546 560 [3] Darmo, Jozef: Ideológia globalizácie a zmeny komunikačného priestoru. In: Zborník FMK UCM: Média, spoločnosť, mediálna fikcia. Trnava 2008, s. 306 311 [4] Darmo, Jozef: Média globalization processes (Problems and challenges). In: Models of European and World Integration. FPVaMV UMB, Banská Bystrica 2001 [5] Flusser, Vilém: Komunikológia. Mediálny inštitút. Bratislava 2002, s. 38 [6] Hríb, Štefan: Kríza médií. Týţdeň 48/2008, s. 3 [7] Ivanička, Koloman: Špecifické črty regionálneho rozvoja Slovenska od nástupu transformácie do súčasného obdobia. In: Analýza ekonomickej a sociálnej inovácie regiónov SR a regionálna politika ich rozvoja. VŠVEMVS, Bratislava 2007 [8] Kosorín, František: Schumpeterove indície premeny kapitalizmu dneška. Kultúra 21/2011/, 12. októbra 2001, s. 3 [9] Kosorín, František: Schumepterove indície premeny kapitalizmu dneška. Kultúra 21/2011/, 12. októbra 2001, s. 3 [10] Zelenayová, Eva: Konzumní politici nepotrebujú národ ani štát, iba moc. Slovenské národné noviny, roč. 20/24/, 26. mája 2009, s. 6 [11] Ratzinger, Joseph: Európa, jej základy v súčasnosti a v budúcnosti. Spolok svätého Vojtecha, Trnava 2006, 133 s. [12] Schweickart, David: Po kapitalizme ekonomická demokracia. Vyd. Spolku slovenských spisovateľov. Bratislava 2010, 208 s. [13] Darmo, Jozef: Masmédia v procese zmien politiky a spoločnosti. Otázky ţurnalistiky. 1996, 1, s. 41 45 [14] Darmo, Jozef: Postavenie médií v čase krízy a prosperity. In: Kreativita, invencia, inovácia. Vyd. EKONÓM, Bratislava 2009, s. 287 302 [15] Ďurica, S. Milan: Národná identita a jej historický profil v slovenskej spoločnosti. LÚČ, Bratislava 2010, 51 s. [16] Korec, Ján, Chryzostom: Démonizmus v ţivote a literatúre. Lúč, Bratislava 2009, 33 s. [17] Storočie propagandy. Zborník HU SAV AEP, Bratislava 2005, 234 s. [18] Dorazil, Otokar: Historická příručka Světové dějiny v kostce. Nakladatelství Papyrus a Jeva, Vimperk Rudná u Prahy 1997, 535 s. 201
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 The Innovations in the Economy with Exhaustible Resource Sector Chursin Alexander Aleksandrovich Doctor of Economic Sciences, PhD in Technical Sciences, Professor Director of Institute of applied technical and economic research and expert assessment Peoples Friendship University of Russia, Miklukho-Maklaya, str. 6, Moscow, Russia, 117198 E-mail: [email protected] Phone: +7(495)787-38-03 ext. 2051 Mechar Miroslav EPI s.r.o. Kunovice Doc. Ing. CSc. Semenov Alexander Sergeevich PhD in Physical and Mathematical Sciences Associate Professor of Institute of applied technical and economic research and expert assessment Peoples Friendship University of Russia, Miklukho-Maklaya, str. 6, Moscow, Russia, 117198 Abstract This work analyzes the innovation growth in the economy in condition of an increase of natural resource extraction in the model framework. The main stylized fact for the model is that the economic growth in Russia in two last decades was not well balanced and a sufficient part of which was due to high prices of natural exhaustible resources (oil and gas). On the other side, there were also successful attempts to induce the growth based on the competences development. To date, there has been a world global problem associated with the dependence of a number of countries from the oil and gas sector. The aim of the work is to develop endogenous growth model, which reflects both the growth of the resource extraction and the growth, connected with increase in technological level of the economy. 202
This model gives the framework for studying the possible development dynamics of economies like Russian. This model may be useful for a number of developing countries, whose budget is in direct dependence on oil and gas exports, and a policy, which is aimed at getting rid of 'needle' of oil and gas. The model is discrete and multi-periodic. The dynamics of the economy is studied both by analytical methods of the important particular cases, which illustrate the main effects. Keywords: Innovation, growth, natural resources, research and development, research and development, endogenous growth models, competences 1. Introduction It is a well-known fact, that Russian export today has crude natural resource bias. The profitability of resource (oil, gas, metals) sector surpassed the profitability of other sectors including manufacturing. This can result in favorable conditions for the start of the «Holland disease», when growing natural resource sector suppresses other branches (partly, due to the flow of investment and production factors) and becomes dominant in the whole economy. However, with good and adequate macroeconomic policy the natural resource extraction and export can become serious advantages of the country. Besides the resource export, one of the main sources of the economic growth in Russia can be and now is the internal market. The growth of such sectors as food, trade, recreation, real estate, construction became significant and stable. However, this type of growth does not fully involve human and technological potential available in Russia, as these sectors borrow the most of technologies from world markets. Moreover, these growing sectors produce goods and services, which are sold mostly inside the country and have a low export potential. One more, the most independent of exogenous factors, component of the growth is the increase in production of the domestic hi-tech and innovative goods for internal and foreign markets. These stylized facts about Russia became the foundation for the models of endogenous innovation growth of the economy with natural resource sector, with constant saving rate, and with the absence of the external investment inflow. The models of this work are the attempts to enlarge the basic Solow model on multi-sector economy, which takes into account the flow of production factors and investment among sectors. It is shown in the framework of the models that the high prices of natural resource can, in some case, result in technical lagging behind, what can lead to negative effects not only on the size of total output but also on the growth of technological level. 1.1 Endogenous Growth One of the main basic points of the growth theory is the Solow model, which establishes the link between the Gross domestic product (GDP) growth and the saving rate, in condition that all savings are transformed into investment. The basic model does not contain technological progress and the economy is supposed to be homogenous i.e. consisting of one sector. The main result of the Solow theory is the proof of the existence of the state of stable growth, to which the economy tends to converge. The growth rate in the steady state equals to 203
the natural growth rate of the population. The ultimate steady state parameters of the economy depend on the saving rate, rate of the population growth and the production function. The initial Solow model seems to be incomplete because it does not consider many important factors. A small modification of the Solow model allows introducing the variable, which accounts for the technological progress, which grows with constant rate over time. In steady state the rate of growth becomes equal to the sum of population growth rate and the technological progress rate (rate of the competence growth). This allows a possible explanation why the rates of growth are not equal for different countries. It is so, because research and development (R&D) intensity and competences acquiring is not uniform all over the world. Nevertheless, the Solow model with technological progress does not take into account the hypothesis of non-constant rate of technological progress and of its partially or fully endogenous character. Another possible explanation of the stabilization of technological lag and even deindustrialization in some countries is the presence of distortions, which can be due to the increase in the intensity of the extraction of exhaustible natural resource, for example oil or gas. In the work (Kuralbaeva and Eismont 1999) the models which show the falling of the economy into the «Holland disease» are described. In the framework of these models it is proven, that in case of high natural resource prices deindustrialization does not occur only with a high rate of technological progress. Besides, it is shown, that in the situation of insufficient rate of technological adjustment the total GDP growth rate can fall in the long run. Another approach to the inequality in the economic development of different countries is the idea that technological progress can be regarded, as the sequence of development existent and creation of new competences and the switching from one type of growth to another on a certain degree of development is necessary. This approach allows the explanation of some tendencies, which take place in many economies. For example, the fail of the «importreplacing» industrialization policy in many countries can be explained by the «overinvestment trap», when the rate of development becomes insufficient due to absence of competitiveness and dynamics and new competences creation. At the end of the 60-ies an influential international group of professionals in the field of diplomacy, industry, the scientific community and civil society merged in Rome. The Club of Rome set a goal to explore next and distant consequences of large-scale solutions associated with selected humanity development paths. It was suggested to use a systematic approach to the study of global issues, by adopting the mathematical method of computer simulation. The results of the study were published in 1972, the Club of Rome's first report entitled 'Limits to growth' (Meadows 1972). The author of the report concluded that if current trends of population growth, industrialization, pollution, food production and resource depletion will continue, over the next century, the world will come to the limits of growth, an unexpected and not controlled by the decline in population and dramatically decreases the volume of production. However, they believed that it is possible to change the trend and come to a sustainable long-term economic and environmental sustainability due to the acquiring new competences and new physical principles adoption. 204
Ray Kurzweil is one of the world s leading inventors, thinkers, and futurists, with a thirty-year track record of accurate predictions. The term 'singularity' is a metaphor borrowed from physics. In (Kurzweil 2005) it means the period of the near future when the speed of technical development will be so high and changes of world around will be so fundamental that it will cardinally change all our existence for very short time. The law of acceleration of return, which sense in acceleration of rates of technical evolution is the main reason of singularity approach. Vernor Vinge proposes an interesting prediction in his essay titled 'The Coming Technological Singularity: How to Survive in the Post-Human Era.' He asserts that mankind will develop a superhuman intelligence before 2030. So that, the singularity in real life can mean acceleration of technological progress in the developed countries and, therefore, the faster development of new competences. 1.2. Innovation Development and Growth The innovation topic has become very developed in the economic theory. In the framework of the theory innovations are classified as local (within one country) and global (on the world market), product and process, large and small. The contrast between imitations (pure borrowings of technologies abroad to develop the exist competencies) and innovations (own R&D to create new competencies and entry into the new markets) is also very important. Early competency theory development stems from Schumpeter s (1939) economic framework that distinguishes the invention from innovation. Behavioral scientists tend to view innovation as a creative process that occurs within the self (Robertson 1967). Innovative and creative organizations build capacity by extending thinking outside of the box to literally breaking the box. Many firms attempt to bridge workforce gaps by redefining competency when selecting the most qualified personnel (Harrison 2015). According to the modern interpretation of the «open innovation» principle, for every corporate planning period (according to its planning cycle) a company should have a clear idea which competencies it should develop internally and which competencies should be planned to be bought or taken from outside (Chesbrough 2003). A thorough analysis of innovations in developed economies is done in the paper (Morck and Yeung 2000). It is stressed that the main type of competition in modern knowledge economy is not competition in price but competition in innovation speed. As the company, which has made an innovation the first, becomes a (temporary) monopoly, the economy cannot more be described as a pure competitive economy. Hence, the innovation process should be modeled in the frameworks of monopolistic competition or oligopoly. For the developing and transition countries the similar analysis is done in the work (Carlin and Seabright 2003). In the work (Marsiglio and Tolotti 2015) the implications of innovation and social interactions on economic growth are analyzed in a stylized endogenous growth model with heterogeneous research firms. A large number of research firms decide whether to innovate or not, by taking into account what competitors (i.e., other firms) do. This is due to the fact that their profits partly depend on an externality related to the share of firms, which actively engage in research activities. Such a share of innovative firms also determines the evolution of technology in the macroeconomy, which ultimately drives economic growth. The paper 205
shows that when the externality effect is strong enough multiple BGP equilibrium may exist. In such a framework, the economy may face a low growth trap suggesting that it may end up in a situation of slow long run growth; however, such an outcome may be fully solved by government intervention. (Chursin and Makarov, 2015) One of the key features of innovation analysis is spillover effect: a company does not get all the profit from its R&D, as other companies will also get the access to the new technology (maybe, with a time lag). By that reason, many firms are prone to underinvest in their R&D. The spillover effect is the basic argument for the subsidies for companies-innovators. Besides, in the economy exists the cash-effect, the effect of the presence of big amounts of cash money in big monopolistic companies, what makes easier for them to finance both imitations and innovations with new competencies. In (Malamud and Zucchi 2015) it is studied optimal liquidity management, innovation, and production decisions for a continuum of firms facing financing frictions and the threat of creative destruction. It is shown that liquidity constraints unambiguously lead firms to decrease their production rate but, surprisingly, may spur investment in innovation (R&D). The authors embed their single-firm dynamics in a Schumpeterian model of endogenous growth and demonstrate that financing frictions have an ambiguous effect on economic growth. A very important part of the innovation theory is the theory of connections between innovations and competition (Morck and Yeung 2000; Aghion et al. 2002; Carlin and Seabright 2003). In (Morck and Yeung 2000) it is shown that this connection is complicated. From one side, competition makes firms to innovate more, but, on the other side, in condition of strong competition, the stimuli to innovate become less strong, as a firm does not expect a long-run profitability from its innovation projects due to spillover (Shumpeterian effect). In (Carlin and Seabright 2003) it is also outlined the importance of Shumpeterian effect, but it is stressed, that the growth of the competition can give a positive effect of the diminishing of the time period needed for innovation projects. In the paper it is also mentioned the competition escaping effect: due to competition a company starts to do more innovations to establish its share on the market more firmly. The main result of all papers devoted to the interrelations between competition and innovations is the firmly established inverse U-shape dependence of innovation rate on competition. The essence of this dependence is that the influence of the increase in competition on productivity (and innovation) is not monotonic: at the beginning it is positive, but starting from a certain level of competition the pressing on a company is too high, and the reverse tendency goes into force. This allows a possible explanation that on a market with a small number of players the competition in quality takes place (what is a favorable factor for innovations) and on markets with many players the competition in prices is dominant. The theory of the inverse U-shape relation between innovations and competition has the best applications for the analysis of particular markets. Nevertheless, this theory is insufficient for modeling the innovation development in the whole economy, as it does not take into account the fact that different branches of an economy have different levels of development and the structure of every economy is not uniform. However, the relation between innovations and competition is a good starting point for further analysis. This relation is studied with taking into account the absence of uniformity of the economy (for the case of developing 206
countries, where companies can differ significantly in structure and in level of development inside one economy) (Carlin and Seabright 2003). Hence, competition not only increases the productivity of all firms, but also makes feasible the selection of the most efficient structures. This selection and its efficiency depend on the quality and type of the institutes. In case of not «sufficiently competitive» environment the effect of competition increase on innovation is rather weak. The work also analyses the effect of scale and innovation costs, including spending on R&D. The main conclusion is that what poor countries really need is not an increase in R&D spending, but more investment, which simplifies the imitation of a completely ready foreign technology from developed markets. This affirmation coincides well with the main conclusion of the theory, which considers technical progress as the consequence of imitations and innovations. The theory of imitations and innovations is a good tool for the technological development analysis in the framework of endogenous growth theory and it suits well for the analysis of innovations in developing and transition economies. In recent years it was thoroughly developed and verified empirically. The main assumption of the theory is the conjecture that the economic growth consists of two stages: imitation and innovation stages. Companies can do both imitations (direct borrowings to develop the existent competencies) of the high-end technologies and their own R&D (the development of new advanced competencies). The fundamental model in the work (Acemoglu et al. 2002) describes this two-stage growth. At the first stage (when a country is far from technological frontier) the optimal strategy is to increase the total amount of investment in existing firms and the main type of development is imitation. At the second stage (as the country approaches the technological frontier) the role of the amount of the investment becomes less important and competitive selection and adaptive capabilities of the market become the most important factors. The main obstacles on the way of growth and achieving the technological frontier level are underinvestment and overinvestment traps. The first trap appears when the economy attempts to jump to the innovation stage too early and stops supporting the increase in investment in traditional sectors. The overinvestment trap appears when industries of the whole economy are ready to transform to the innovation stage, but the economic policy still is more appropriate to the previous, investment and imitation, stage (tax relaxation for the strongest industries, competition restrictions, excessive concentration on the investment to traditional enterprises). The proofs of the existence of such traps are based on two effects: the effect of the insufficient profitability of the investment in innovations and rent-shield effect (a big amount of resources in the possession of insiders protects them from outside competitors). The first effect leads to the underinvestment trap (the majority of firms do not want to carry out big investment projects as they are not as profitable as they should be) аnd the second effect leads to the overinvestment trap (the companies-insiders stay firmly in the market and they prefer not to have high-risk innovation projects). In the work (Polterovich and Popov 2003) empirical results of cross-country regressions supporting the theory of two-stage growth (Acemoglu et al. 2002) are described. It is asserted that pure import of technologies is the feature of the poor economies and is most profitable for them. As for countries with medium or high income per capita technology import should be combined with internal R&D, and the higher income per capita is, the higher should be the share of internal R&D. 207
In (Polterovich and Tonis 2003) it is also developed the two-stage growth theory of (Acemoglu et al. 2002). In this endogenous growth model innovations are subdivided into the categories of global and local innovations, and the assertion that companies borrow the technologies only from the frontier level is rejected. In difference with (Acemoglu et al. 2002) here are three regimes of growth: imitation regime (characteristic for poor countries), innovation regime (characteristic for the most developed countries) and mixed regime which contains both imitation and innovation components. Improving the quality of institutes the country can go from the pure imitation strategy to innovation strategy through mixed regime. The work also contains the empirical subdivision of the countries based on the type of the growth. Also the authors discuss the hypothesis that a significant amount of R&D money is spent on local innovations. The idea of the contrast between imitations and innovations can be useful in practical sense, for example in devising the optimal patent law. In work (Polterovich and Popov 2003) it is stressed that a strong patent law (which satisfy to the World Trade Organization (WTO) standards) is not optimal for developing or transition economies, as it makes the diffusion of technologies weaker (especially on imitation stage). That fully corresponds to the conclusions of (Carlin and Seabright 2003) that the problem of the defense of intellectual property rights is important mostly for developed countries. The ambiguous role of patent laws is also stressed (Morck and Yeung 2000). These laws strengthen the monopoly power, and increase the revenues of companies, which have made innovations. On the other side, they allow a monopolist to take less care of further innovations. The importance of the last argument is supported by recent econometric research. As in the development of the economy different traps are possible, the state influence during some periods of time seems reasonable. (Some measures of state influence can be avoided by appropriate institutional reforms.) This issue is studied in paper (Tonis 2003). There are some models of endogenous innovation growth, which involve ideas and mechanisms, similar to the outlined above. Underdevelopment trap (due to spillover effect) can be a negative result of economy development without state influence. The one-sector model proposed in the work focuses on the choice between the necessity of partial subsidizing of the R&D and the distortions of the economy caused by the excessive subsidies The second, especially actual for Russia, model represents an economy consisting of two sectors: traditional sector and innovation sector. As in the previous model, the aim of the research is to find the optimal subsidy, which will assure that the country will escape the underdevelopment trap. The «new industry» argument supposes that the high-tech enterprises should receive R&D subsidies. The necessity of the subsidies is motivated by spillover effect. On the other side, the amount of subsidies should be seriously restricted, as in the case of generous subsidies the companies main target becomes additional amount of transfers and they will seek opportunities to increase their influence on the state (rent-seeking argument) rather than to augment the profitability. The main conclusion of the work is that the size of subsidies to high-tech sector should increase with the growth of the profitability of the sector. The table 1 consists of major scientific results in this area with the main findings. 208
Table 1. The major scientific results Endogenous Growth Kuralbaeva and Eismont,1999 Meadows 1972 Kurzweil 2005 The models which show the falling of the economy into the «Holland disease» are described. In case of high natural resource prices deindustrialization does not occur only with a high rate of technological progress. Besides, it is shown, that in the situation of insufficient rate of technological adjustment the total GDP growth rate can fall in the long run. If current trends of population growth, industrialization, pollution, food production and resource depletion will continue, over the next century, the world will come to the limits of growth, an unexpected and not controlled by the decline in population and dramatically decreases the volume of production The singularity. The speed of technical development will be so high and changes of world around will be so fundamental that it will cardinally change all our existence for very short time Vinge 1993 Mankind will develop a superhuman intelligence before 2030. Innovation Development and Growth Schumpeter 1939 Robertson 1967 Harrison 2015 Chesbrough 2003 Morck and Yeung 2000 Marsiglio and Tolotti 2015 Distinguishes the invention from innovation Behavioral scientists tend to view innovation as a creative process that occurs within the self Many firms attempt to bridge workforce gaps by redefining competency when selecting the most qualified personnel for every corporate planning period (according to its planning cycle) a company should have a clear idea which competencies it should develop internally and which competencies should be planned to be bought or taken from outside the main type of competition in modern knowledge economy is not competition in price but competition in innovation speed. The innovation process should be modeled in the frameworks of monopolistic competition or oligopoly A stylized endogenous growth model with heterogeneous research firm. when the externality effect is strong enough multiple BGP equilibria may 209
exist Malamud and Zucchi 2015 Carlin and Seabright 2003 Acemoglu et al. 2002 Polterovich and Popov 2003 Polterovich and Tonis 2003 Tonis 2003 Optimal liquidity management, innovation, and production decisions for a continuum of firms facing financing frictions and the threat of creative destruction Poor countries really need is not an increase in R&D spending, but more investment, which simplifies the imitation of a completely ready foreign technology from developed markets The fundamental model describes two-stage growth. At the first stage the optimal strategy is to increase the total amount of investment in existing firms and the main type of development is imitation. At the second stage the role of the amount of the investment becomes less important and competitive selection and adaptive capabilities of the market become the most important factors. The Cross-country regressions supporting the theory of two-stage growth (Acemoglu, Aghion, Zilibotti, 2002) Three regimes of growth: imitation regime (characteristic for poor countries), innovation regime (characteristic for the most developed countries) and mixed regime which contains both imitation and innovation components The high-tech enterprises should receive R&D subsidies A large part of the analyzed works (Chesbrough 2003; (Morck and Yeung 2000; Marsiglio and Tolotti 2015; (Acemoğlu et al. 2002; Polterovich and Popov 2003; Polterovich and Tonis 2003) do not take into account the specific features of developing countries when analyzing growth and innovative development models. In paper (Carlin, Seabright 2003) the relation between innovations and competition is studied with taking into account the absence of uniformity of the economy in case of developing countries, where companies can differ significantly in structure and in level of development inside one economy. However, unlike the proposed model, this paper does not take into account the assumption that institutional and political risks in the economy are rather high; so all the investments (including spending on innovations) are financed by internal savings. This restriction seems realistic for Russia, as the total amount of strategic foreign investment in Russia is insufficient. In paper (Kuralbaeva and Eismont 1999) analytical solutions were derived, but the dynamics of technological progress in the economy was supposed to be homogeneous (with a constant growth rate or described a differential equation). An important difference of the 210
proposed model is non-constant rate of change of technological level and its partially endogenous character. The theory of imitations and innovations can explain well many peculiarities of economic growth, however in the case of Russia the analysis should start with special initial conditions. At first, the sufficient share of the total growth of Russia is based on the extensive growth of the natural resource extraction, and the crucial factor of this growth is the available stock of natural resources and innovations do not play here the first roles. Secondly, the most probable sector of the innovation growth in Russia is high-tech sector (MIC, heavy machinery), which is a long time in the innovation phase, and the study of its 'simulation of dynamics' is not relevant. This work contains a two-sector model of endogenous growth, which contains elements both from imitation-innovation theory of the works (Polterovich and Tonis 2003; Acemoglu et al. 2002) and from multi-sector models with the resource sector, described in the work (Kuralbaeva, Eismont 1999). In the framework of the model proposed the question, if an economy with resource sector and exogenous resource price can reach the world technological level, is studied. The peculiarities of this model are a constant saving rate, which makes it similar to the Solow model, and the absence of foreign capital inflow. The main mechanism of the models is the flow of the total investment between sectors and the inflow of capital to the most profitable sector. Thus, the introduction of new options dramatically increases the possibility of practical application of the model in Russia and other countries from commodity dependence. 2. Two-sector model The model outlined below describes the economy, which consists of two sectors: the manufacturing sector and the sector of exhaustible natural resource extraction. The stock of the resource is supposed to be very large, although the extraction of a unit quantity of the resource results in the loss in utility of the owner, as this quantity cannot be used in the future. The model is discrete and multi-periodic. All equations describe the dynamics from the moment t to the moment t+1. The economy is open for trade. The manufacturing sector produces the good M and the extracting sector produces the good R. The goods M and R can be sold on external and internal markets. The price of the good M is constant and equals to 1 and the price of R is flexible. It depends on the situation in the world economy and equals pt at the moment t. Capital is the unique factor of production in this model. This assumption corresponds to the situation when the number of the working population is constant and there is a small mobility between the sectors in the whole economy. In reality, this can be interpreted as constant and small number of workers in the extracting sector in comparison with the entire economy. Another basic assumption of the model is that institutional and political risks in the economy are rather high; so all the investments (including spending on innovations) are financed by internal savings. This restriction seems realistic for Russia, as the total amount of strategic foreign investment in Russia is insufficient. 2.1. Main Equations 211
The economy is based on free market principles. The agents are manufacturing sector firms and natural resource extraction firms. The price of capital is endogenous and equals 1+r (The capital lives one period and its owner should get back the initial capital cost plus the interest rate after the end of the period). Let be the total production (in terms of money), and be the total amount of capital. The outputs in each sector are denoted as, (in terms of money) and, (in terms of real amounts of output). The quantities of capital in each sector are denoted as,. The utility of the manufacturing sector equals to its profit ( ) ( ) and the utility of resource extraction sector equals ( ) ( ) ( ), i.e. its modified profit which takes into account the loss of the quantity of the resource which was extracted at the moment t: nonzero coefficient β [beta] denotes the loss in utility from the fact that a unit quantity of the resource, extracted at t, cannot be extracted at any future period of time. Large values of β [beta] correspond to the case when the owner of the resource «takes care about the future» i.e. considers the possibility of the exhaustion of the resource in defining the current amount of extraction. In the model it is also assumed that, i.e. in spite of fluctuations the world resource price is always higher than the minimal level β [beta], starting from which the extraction becomes profitable. The production functions of the sectors M and R are:,. Here is the multiplier corresponding to the technological level of the manufacturing sector, which changes from period to period, B is the constant parameter of production in the resource extraction sector (for example, the quality of deposits). The following type of production functions allows solving the model analytically. If, then the following first-order conditions is valid: ( ) ( ) The saving rate of the economy is constant and equals s and all savings transform to the investment: ( ). Then in condition internal solution always exists. This problem is equivalent to the GDP maximization problem with the restriction on the total amount of capital: s.t. 212 ( )
The Lagrange function equals to: ( ) ( ) If then first-order condition is of the form: ( ) or ( ( ) ) (In case there exists a corner solution with ). As then the solution always exists. Then ( ( ) ) (( ( ) ) ) The shares of capital in manufacturing and extracting sectors equal: (( ( ) ) ) ( ( ) ( ) ) ( ( ) ) These equations show that the greater is β, the greater share of investment goes to the manufacturing sector. The total GDP of the economy after the end of period t in terms of money equals ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) In case of the wasteful resource extraction (β=0) the dynamical system has the appearance: For the manufacturing economy (without resource extraction sector) the output is equal to 213
2.2. Technological Progress The endogenous character of the technological progress in the manufacturing sector is one of the peculiarities of the model. For the problem of profit maximization for the period t the coefficient At is supposed to be constant. However, as the manufacturing sector develops new knowledge and technologies, the coefficient At changes over time. The evolution of the technological level At in the model has a complicated structure and depends on exogenous and endogenous factors. The exogenous world technological progress (following (Polterovich and Tonis 2003)) is given by the equation ( ), where g is a constant rate of growth of the world technological progress. The crucial factor for the efficiency of the investment to the manufacturing sector is the level of development of the country. It is defined as the ratio of the technological level of the country to the world technological level With the development of production, the manufacturing sector accumulates knowledge and technologies which form the development potential. The development potential, accumulated at the end of period t, equals to 214. ( ( ) ( ) ). The first term corresponds to the part of the development potential, which has remained from previous period t-1, and the second term corresponds to the knowledge and technologies, obtained and introduced during the period t. Coefficient ( ) is the share of H from the previous period, C(at) is an exogenous function, corresponding to the educational level of the country, and is the share of capital of the manufacturing sector in total capital amount in period t (in the model the unique generator and consumer of the technological progress is the manufacturing sector). The initial level H0 is exogenous. The development potential can be spent either on adaptation of new foreign technologies (exist competences) or on own R&D activities (new competences). Both imitations and innovations result in growth of technological level At+1 in comparison with At. New value At+1 becomes known at the beginning of the period t+1. The dynamics of the technological level is given by the equation: ( ) ( ) The coefficient δa (0 δa 1) corresponds to the share of technologies form previous period, which are still not obsolete. The term ( ) corresponds to the imitation part and ( ) to the innovation part of the technology growth. Variables, correspond to the shares of development potential, spent on exist and new competences. One of the main peculiarities of the model is the assumption, that with the growth of the technological level and the level of development of the country exist
competencies become less efficient and new competencies become more efficient. i.e. function ExistCompet(a) is decreasing in a and NewCompet(a) is increasing in a. This property plays the crucial role in (Polterovich and Tonis 2003) and is supported by empirical evidence, according to which as the country becomes more developed, the significance of internal R&D grows (Polterovich and Popov 2003). It is also supposed in the model, that all countries on the technological frontier (a = 1) have the pure innovation type of development, i.e. ExistCompet(1) =0. Another natural restriction of the technological growth is the fact, that every country, including technological leaders, cannot «overcome» the rate of the world technological progress, i.e. there exists the additional restriction ( ) or. The problem of the optimal allocation of development potential is as follows: ( ) ( ) s.t. s.t. For the solution of this problem an explicit function ( ) should be found: ( ) ( ) s.t. is given by the formula. ( ) * +. The solution of the maximization problem is: ( ), if ( ) ( ) ( ), if ( ) ( ) In the next section the dynamics of the economy and underdevelopment trap are considered. 2.3. Dynamics of the Economy and Underdevelopment Trap Firstly, consider the case of pure manufacturing economy at the technological frontier at the moment t. Then, and the equation on the development potential is of the form: ( ( ) ( )) Then the evolution of technological progress has the form: * + 215
( ) The country will keep the technological leadership, if ( ) ( ) This condition results in conjecture, that the development potential H and educational level C should remain high for every moment of time. Let the educational level be constant and equal 1, C=const=1, and the economy be not a technological leader. The development potential satisfies the equation ( ( ) ). The dynamics of technological level is of the form * ( ) ( )+, - It can be easily concluded that with sufficiently small values of H the economy will not reach the technological frontier. On the contrary, with big values of H the economy will quickly achieve the world technological frontier. The next possible generalization is the case, when the economy contains the resource extraction sector, the country is not a technological leader, and ExistCompet(at), NewCompet(at) are nonzero. Then ( ), if ( ) ( ) ( ), if ( ) ( ) These equations can be rewritten as * ( ) ( )+ * + Suppose that at<1. The necessary condition for technological growth can be written as * ( ) ( )+ This inequality can be rewritten * ( ) ( )+ ( ), or ( ) * ( ) ( )+ If this inequality is not hold after the end of period t, the distance to technological frontier will not decrease. If underdevelopment is growing, the economy can eventually fall into the underdevelopment trap, when the achievement of the frontier becomes impossible due to low values of H (what was shown in previous example). The share of the manufacturing sector capital in total capital in the economy equals: 216
( ( ) ) ( ) The equation on the development potential is of the form ( ) ( ) [ ( ) ] Let H0 be such a value, for which the pure manufacturing economy with the educational level C(at) >1 will escape the underdevelopment trap. If the exogenous price of the resource is close to β then Ht will grow over time and the economy will reach the technological frontier. But if the resource price will grow too fast the economy can fall into the underdevelopment trap. It should be noted that the greater is β, the lower is influence of resource price on the economy. A big β means that the owners of the resource are ready to refuse of getting a significant amount of profit today for the opportunity to extract it in the future. The formula shows that exogenous high prices of the resource and low technological level, educational level, and development potential can lead to the growth of the dependence of the economy on the resource extraction. As the result, At and at will start to fall and the role of the resource component of the economy will seriously grow. Then, when the resource price will fall, the investment will go back to the manufacturing sector, which, however, will have insufficient level of development potential for getting out of underdevelopment trap. Moreover, the educational level C can also drop (if it is not constant), what will make the technological growth of the economy even more troublesome. This example shows that in condition of high resource price free market environment (or direct GDP maximization) may not assure the stable growth of at. That means that for the suppression of unfavorable tendencies, connected with exogenous fluctuations of the resource prices, the economy requires additional regulation mechanisms. Active economic policy of the state can be one of such regulation instruments. 2.4. State Intervention In this work it is supposed that the unique policy which is preformed by the regulating agency is the policy of proportional taxation: a proportional tax 0<f<1 is imposed on resource extraction. In this part is supposed to be zero 0 for the simplicity of the expressions. In the presence of tax the owner of the resource solves the problem for the «price» ( ). Then total GDP of the economy (in terms of money) equals: ( ( ( )) ( ) ( ( )) ) 217
The private sector gets: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ( )) ( ( )) ( ( )) The state revenue from the resource is equal to: ( ) ( ) ( ( )) Besides the taxation, the state also subsidizes the manufacturing sector, namely, gives q units of money for a unit of good produced in manufacturing sector. The total GDP of the economy equals The revenues of the private sector are ( ) ( ( ( )) ( ( )) ( ) ( ( )) ( ( )) ) ( ) ( ) ( ( )) ( ( ( )) ( ( )) ( ) ( ( )) ( ( )) ) ( ( )) ( ( )) The state revenue is equal to ( ) ( ( ( )) ( ( )) ) ( ) ( ( )) ( ( )) ( ) ( ) ( ( )) ( ( )) The budget of the state has no deficit and that is equivalent to. 218
This restriction can be rewritten as ( ) ( ). It is supposed in the model that the state has two goals: maximization of total GDP (and, hence, the wealth of the economy) and achieving the stable technological growth (which depends on performance of manufacturing sector). These two approaches are unified in the definition of the function of weighted GDP, which becomes the target function for the state: ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ( )) ( ( ( )) ( ( )) ( ) ( ( )) ( ( )) ) Here ω is the weight of the manufacturing sector in the weighted GDP. As the state has no aims besides the weighted GDP maximization, it spends all its revenues on it and the solution of the problem is located on the border i.e. ( ) ( ). The maximization problem of the state is: ( ( )) ( ( ( )) ( ( )) ( ) ( ( )) ( ( )) ) s.t. ( ) ( ) The second condition gives the explicit dependence of q on f: ( ) So, the two-sector model shows well the negative impact of the increase in the dependence of the economy on the exogenous resource prices. 3 Practical implication The most important task, while studying the technological industry development, is to assess its level and to make the benchmarking between one particular country s industry or enterprise and the world best level. So, the analysis of technological standards or benchmarking is the primary management tool for the analysis of corporations technological development in the practice of modern economic research. To determine such benchmarks it is necessary to identify how good various corporations perform the basic manufacturing technologies and functions, how their technology are effective. Then, it is necessary to develop some metrics, assess the conditions of each metric in the leading enterprises of the sector and in the considered enterprise and take the weighted average of these metrics. 219
If the technological level of a corporation has not been reached, therefore, there is an urgent need to develop the key competences, which will be aimed at overcoming that gap. 4 Conclusion The main purpose of the work was to describe the possible extensions of the Solow model with following additional assumptions: - the economy consists of more than one sector (resource extraction sector, sector of non-tradable services) - technological progress is partly endogenous - technological progress is generated in one sector - the development of the economy has imitation (development of existent competencies) and innovation (creation of new competences) stages - the model considers an institutional factor (education) which is favorable for technological modernization One important feature of the model is non-constant rate of change of technological level and its partially endogenous character. This enables the «underdevelopment traps», when the technological level of the country grows, but the rate of growth is insufficient for achieving the world frontier. This can result in stabilization of the development level on a certain value, less than 1, what is equal to the permanent underdevelopment of the country. In the framework of these models the effects of the «Holland disease» and deindustrialization in case of high resource price were analyzed. It was shown, that high resource prices create externalities, which lead to the issue that in unfavorable conditions the market can go along an unstable in the long run development trajectory and become significantly dependent on resource prices. The greater is β, i.e. «considering the future», in the resource sector, the less is the size of the distortions. The model showed a new negative effect of the «Holland disease», the slowdown of endogenous technical progress in the economy, which leads to the future decrease of profitability of the manufacturing sector and growth of dependence on the resource price. The practical significance of the provided two-sector endogenous growth model is to develop and apply mathematical apparatus of the optimum control theory to account for the influence of macro economy on the economic growth of the countries with developed mining sector. Extending the basic model by introducing additional assumptions will clarify the dynamics of forecasting economies. The main feature of this model is to reorient growth primarily on internal factors and mechanisms of economic development, to increase domestic resources and growth of competencies, which are able to create the necessary starting conditions for economic growth and maintain its optimal pace in the long term, in the case of a prolonged drop in prices of mined resources. 220
References [1]Acemoglu, D., Aghion, P. and Zilibotti, F. (2002). Distance to Frontier, Selection, and Economic Growth. NBER Working Paper 9066 http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w9066 [2]Aghion, P., Bloom, N., Blundell, R., Griffith, R., Howitt, P. (2002). Competition and Innovation: An Inverted U Relationship. NBER Working Paper 9269 http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w9269 [3]Aghion, P., Carlin, W., Schaffer, M.E. (2002). Competition, Innovation and Growth in Transition: Exploring the Interactions between Policies. SSRN Electronic Journal SSRN Journal [4]Aghion, P., Howit, P. (1999). Endogenous Growth Theory. The MIT Press [5]Carlin, W., Seabright, P. (2003). The Importance of Competition in Developing Countries for Productivity and Innovation. Background paper for World Development Report [6]Chesbrough, H. (2003). Ореn Innovation: The New Imperative for Creating and Profiting from Technology. Harvard Business School Press ISBN: 1578518377, 272. [7]Chursin, A. and Makarov, Yu. (2015). Management of Competitiveness. Theory and Practice. Springer p 378 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-16244-7 [8]Dezhina, I.G. (2001). The Support of Efficient Mechanisms of the Innovations in Russian Economy. IETP, Moscow [9]Dezhina, I.G. (2002). Russian Basic Science After Ten Years of Transition and Foreign Support. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. From Transition to Development. World Bank Report (2004). [10]Harrison, A.E. (2015). Exploring skills and competencies for innovators. 5th International Conference on Engaged Management Scholarship, Baltimore, Maryland, September 10-13. [11]Krasnochtchekova, P. (2000). Industrial Structure in Transition: The Case of the Russian Federation. DRUID Winter Conference 6-9 January [12]Kuralbaeva, K., Eismont, O. (1999). The Exhaustion of Natural Resources and the Longrun Prospects for Russian Economy EERC 7 [13]Kurzweil, R. (2005). The Singularity Is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology. New York: Viking Books ISBN 978-0-670-03384-3. [14]Malamud, S., Zucchi, F. (2015). Liquidity, Innovation, and Endogenous Growth. CEPR Discussion Paper DP10840 [15]Marsiglio, S., Tolotti, M. (2015). Endogenous Growth and Technological Progress with Innovation Driven by Social Interactions. Working Paper 9 http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2696668 221
[16]Morck, R., Yeung, B. (2000). The Economic Determinants of Innovation. Canadian Government Printing Office [17]Pappe, Y.Sh. (2000). The Oligarchs The High School of Economics, Moscow [18]Polterovich, V., Popov, V. (2003). Stages of Development and Economic Growth. Manuscript [19]Polterovich, V., Tonis, A. (2003). Innovation and Imitation at Various Stages of Development. New Economic School [20]Robertson, T.S. (1967). The process of innovation and the diffusion of innovation. The Journal of Marketing, pp 14-19 DOI:10.2307/1249295 [21]Schumpeter, J.A. (1939). Business cycles. New York: McGraw Hill 1 pp 161-174. [22]Tonis, A. (2003). Promoting Growth: Rent-Seeking as a Cause of Failure. New Economic School, Moscow [23]Vinge, V. (1993). The Coming Technological Singularity: How to Survive in the Post- Human Era. VISION-21 Symposium http://wwwrohan.sdsu.edu/faculty/vinge/misc/singularity.html Expert proofreading of the article: professor Eng. Jozef Mihok, CSc. Drhc. 222
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT AND ITS INFLUENCE TOWARDS WORLD PROSPERITY AND DECLINE Assoc. prof. PhDr. Stanislav Benčič, PhD. Pan- European University, Faculty of MassMedia, tel.: + 421 903312564, e-mail: [email protected] Abstract The paper deals with the pressing issues of social life, justifying interdisciplinary approaches to crucial social issues that are influenced by technological progress in the global scale. It explains the role of last industrial revolutions in term of human race protection and other global problems. The paper gives suggestions for holistic comprehension of sciences and humanities. Keywords: sciences, humanities, interdisciplinary approach, affective filter, technological development, 1. INTRODUCTION Barriers and separate comprehension between sciences and humanities are evident in higher school education. Learners don not overcome affective filters that prevent them to understand social and natural phenomena in their mutual interdependency. There is not common awareness of the historical role mentioned above two approaches. The affective filter is a psychical barrier that causes rejecting important knowledge for human prosperity. According to World Economic Forum, scientists are able to name main global risks for example extreme weather events, failure of national governance systems, state collapse or crisis and high structural unemployment or underemployment, otherwise they rarely connect mentioned phenomena with the basic phenomena that are caused by technological development and ethical decline. The Czech entrepreneur Tomas Bata expressed an idea that economic crisis is in fact moral crisis by the well-known quotation: Financial recovery must be preceded by moral recovery. Such awareness of links between different scientific fields for example economics and ethics can push our mankind forward to desired prosperity. To be able to justify pressing issues of our life, jointly, by human and technological approaches, is the main condition for successful problem solutions and preventions of disasters. 223
2. AFFECTIVE FILTER IN PRACTICE It is difficult to understand the right reason why some people are open and narrow minded as well as why some open minded researcher are narrow minded when they have to use sources from other disciplines. To explain that state is possible by Crashen s theory of affective filter. That theory is used in foreign langue teaching but it has more general application. It is obvious that some people proclaim that they are not able to learn foreign language. It is obvious that some people proclaim that they are not able cope with modern technologies or mathematics. They feel that they have lack of special genes. They feel it but they do not know it. Such behaviours can be marked as affective. Affective perception of life is a human behavioural phenomenon that is influenced by or emotions. Affective filter causes emotions or feeling. Affective acts are not effective. In that context filter means the kind of emotion that blocks heuristic approaches for problem solving techniques. There are some social problems in advanced economies which are professionally interpreted by sociologists but not with close cooperation with appropriate engineers. Researchers from sciences on the one side and humanities on the other side can not cooperate because of mutual affective filter and artificial underestimations of common findings. Contemporary artists, scientists and politicians are not aware of the fact that a lot of glorious investigations and inventions were based on interdisciplinary studies. Jacques de Vaucanson was an inventor and artist, famous for his The Canard Digérateur, or Digesting Duck, who constructed automata self operating machines in 18th century with close relations with philosophers. Those times philosophers and constructors were acting hand in hand. Voltaire wrote that 'without...the duck of Vaucanson, you would have nothing to remind you of the glory of France.' 3. SOCIAL PROBLEM WARNING: HIKIKOMORI Sociologists, psychologists and other humanities experts connect extension of European civilisation and population of very advanced economies with the existence of hikikomori. Hikikomori are the young people who are without social contacts more than six months. The main symptoms are: withdrawal from all social activities into the solitude for years, sometimes for all life. It s surveyed in Japan. There are 700,000 hard-core cases and an additional 1.5 million considered borderline. They prefer contacts with technology achievement products to social one. Technology development is in process and sociologists are dealing with the issues how to turn out hikikomori civilisation from advanced and more and more dying advanced civilisation. The possibility to invent new technology products which operating systems are conditioned by personal contact will be act of population s lifesaving in advanced countries that have prosperous and booming market. The population grows older in the countries with the highest standard of living. Hikikomory are so far observed mostly in Japan and its logical that more countries in sequence will do hikikomory statistics and have real expectations. The newest technologies which assist to social decline have to design new and innovative antihikikomori programme. Besides, technology education, students have to learn their self diagnose to warn them against that terminal state of happiness Effectiveness of higher education can turn into waste because of insufficient information about threats which endanger human race because of prosperity and technological 224
development. Those topics are reduced towards reduce, reuse and recycle precautions in environmental education. It is not enough. It should be enlarged to: resocialization - the process of learning new attitudes and norms required for a new social role, and do not take into consideration only material substances. 4. CONCLUSION Solving and dealing with global threats without integrated, holistic and heuristic approaches demands cooperative strategies, more precisely forming Cooperative learning and exploring groups consisting of the members of various fields. Surprisingly, in some cases the most important role among economists, engineers, physicians and computer analyst can play forensic expert, who will reveal abusive or corrupt company behaviour. Population s Access to the highest technology product can shift high technology users below poor countries in Happy Planet Index. The aim of technology development is also to activate personal self actualization, happiness and spirituality. To introduce more interdisciplinary subjects in high education curricula is a must for future. REFERENCES [1] Bowker, M.H.: Ideologies of Experience, Trauma, Failure, Deprivation, and the Abandonment of the Self, Published by Routledge, New York, 2016, ISBN 978-1-138-18267-7 [2] Steinberg, D.D et al: Psycholinguistics, Language, Mind and World, Published by Routlege, New York, 2013, ISBN 978-0-582-03949 -0 Internet sources: https://agenda.weforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/top10risklikelihood.png, online 20.5.2016 https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/tom%c3%a1%c5%a1_ba%c5%a5a online 20.5.2016 Expert proofreading of the article: Assoc.prof. Pavol Plesník, PhD 225
14th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM MEMS 2016 MECHATRONIKA 2016 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BRATISLAVA Bratislava, SLOVAKIA, May 25-27. 2016 NAVÁDZANIE MANIPULAČNÉHO SYSTÉMU VIZUÁLNOU STOPOU Ondrej STAŠ, Michal BACHRATÝ, Marián TOLNAY, Ján VLNKA Robotic system guidance using visual trace Annotation: The paper is describing the creation of a program, that is capable of automatically generating a program for robotic system guidance with a camera system. The work is dedicated to the setting up of the programming code for the YAMAHA YK 400X robot with regard to the guidance from an external area and describes individual commands, characterizes the machine vision system and its applicability. It describes individual commands of created scripts in MATLAB and their translation into Java. It explains the created HMI interface and communication between the computer and the camera system. The work contains a description and flowchart of the final program which generates a program for robot movement guidance. Keywords: robotic system, camera system, automatically generating 1 ÚVOD Jednou z nových aplikácií v oblasti robotiky je navádzanie robotického systému vizuálnou stopou, kde sledovaný objekt je pomocou kamery lokalizovaný, teda je pomocou programu vyhodnotené jeho ťaţisko alebo obrysová hrana a následne sú nasnímané informácie odoslané do riadiaceho systému (RS) robota, ktorý je schopný lokalizovaným objektom ďalej automaticky manipulovať. Klasický prípad automatickej manipulácie, kde laserový lúč určujúci trajektóriu pohybu manipulovaného objektu je riadený špeciálne na tento účel vyvinutým programom. Príspevok obsahuje časť výskumu z tejto oblasti, ktorý bol realizovaný na pracovisku autorov. 2 POPIS A METODIKA EXPERIMENTU A VÝPOČTU Pouţité laboratórne pracovisko pozostáva z robota YAMAHA YK 400Xa kamerového systému, zloţeného z kamery Basler Scout sca1300-32fc upevnenej na stojane nad pásovým dopravníkom (Obr. 1). Vizuálna stopa pouţitá na riadenie pohybu robota bol lúč z laserového ukazovátka. Riadiaci systém umoţňoval riadiť mechaniku robota podľa príkazov z programu činnosť robota ovládaním pohonov a ostatných mechanizmov a zaisťuje komunikáciu cez I/O rozhranie s periférnym zariadením: paletová stanica, dopravník polotovaru. 226
Obr.1 Zostavenie pracoviska s robotom a kamerovým systémom Vytvorený programový kód pre robot YAMAHA YK 400X umoţňuje automaticky generovať, a následne pohybovať ramená robota po zadanej dráhe. Úloha spočívala v riešení ovládacích príkazov, pomocou ktorých sa zapínajú pohonové motory, nastavuje sa ich rýchlosť a zrýchlenie, pomocou ktorých sa nastaví ţiadaný súradnicový systém z externého prostredia. Z hľadiska funkčnosti riadiaceho programu, musí mať program presnú štruktúru, ktorú rozčleňujeme do troch blokov: hlavička programu nachádza sa v nej príkaz na odoslanie programu do riadiacej jednotky robota spolu so zadefinovaním jeho názvu, zapnutie motorov, nastavenie rýchlosti, zrýchlenia, novej súradnicovej sústavy a zadefinovanie príkazu pre pohyb robota po ľubovoľnej dráhe, telo programu zadajú sa jednotlivé body, po ktorých sa má pohyb realizovať, ukončenie programu návrat nastavenia súradnicového systému do pôvodného stavu, program sa ukončí a resetuje sa na začiatok. Vytvorená štruktúra programu pre riadenie robota, ktorý má vykonávať pohyb po zadanej krivke, je znázornená na obr.2. Pri generovaní tohto programu sa namiesto bodov P1, P2 aţ PN doplnia nasnímané konkrétne súradnice z laserového lúča. Obr. 2 Štruktúra vytvoreného programu pre riadenie robota 227
Zoznam a vysvetlenie pouţitých príkazov: Prepojenie riadiacej jednotky robota s počítačom: SEND <read file> TO <write file>- slúţi na odoslanie dát z <readfile> do <writefile> cez RS 232 port. V našom prípade chceme odoslať napísaný program z počítača do riadiacej jednotky robota, a teda príkaz bude mať tvar SEND CMU TO <názov programu>. NAME <názov programu>- slúţi na uloţenie posielaného programu do riadiacej jednotky pod zadaným názvom. Zapnutie servomotorov robota a nastavenie ich rýchlosti a zrýchlenia: SERVO ON zapína servomotory všetkých osí, hneď potom ako zapne napájanie motorov. SERVO OFF - vypína servomotory všetkých osí. SPEED <výraz>- mení rýchlosť pohybu všetkých osí. Hodnota zadaná v zátvorkách sa má pohybovať v rozmedzí 1 aţ 100 (%), kde hodnota 100 znamená maximálnu rýchlosť robota, ktorá je pri SCARE YAMAHA YK 400X 6 m/s. ACCEL <výraz> mení koeficient zrýchlenia hlavných osí robota na hodnotu zadanú v zátvorkách. Hodnota sa musí pohybovať v rozmedzí 1 aţ 100 (%), kde hodnota 100 znamená maximálne moţné zrýchlenie robota. Nastavenie súradnicového systému: V našom prípade bude potrebné prestavenie pôvodného súradnicového systému robota, na taký, ktorý bude zodpovedať súradnicovému systému zorného poľa kamery. Vyuţijeme príkazy: SHIFT Sn - presun počiatku súradnicového systému do bodu udaného pomocou súradníc zapísaných v premennej Sn. Sn = x y z r premenná, ktorá definuje hodnoty súradnice, kam sa má presunúť počiatočný bod súradnicového systému robota. Hodnot yx, y a z zodpovedajú súradniciam x,y a z v karteziánskom súradnicovom systéme a hodnota r udáva natočenie súradnicového systému v xy rovine. Pohyb robota do začiatočnej polohy: Pred samotným pohybom ramien robota po krivke, sa musí zabezpečiť východzia poloha, teda v nulovom bode uţ presunutého súradnicového systému. To docielime pomocou nasledovného príkazu: MOVE P, P0 -vykonáva absolútny pohyb robota z pôvodného bodu do bodu špecifikovaného hodnotou P0 = X Y Z R A B (súradnice sú zadávané v mm v tvare reálneho čísla). Pohyb robota po krivke: Nakoľko cieľom bol pohyb po krivke totoţnej s krivkou pohybu svetla z laserového ukazovátka, ktoré nasníma kamera. Nasledujúci príkaz zabezpečí pohyb ramien robota konštantnou rýchlosťou po krivke zloţenej z bodov, ktoré získame z vytvoreného programu na spracovanie zosnímaného obrazu. Príkaz PATH sa skladá z nasledujúcich príkazov, ktoré sa musia naprogramovať v tomto konkrétnom poradí: PATH SETP0 sa pouţíva na označenie začiatku zadefinovávania pohybu robota po krivke. Zároveň sa udá začiatočný bod pohybu, v ktorom sa robot musí nachádzať pri spustení samotného pohybu. 228
PATH L/C, P1 - samotné zadefinovanie bodov, po ktorých sa robot bude pohybovať a spôsob pohybu. Ak naprogramujeme príkaz v tvare PATH L, pohyb medzi jednotlivými bodmi bude lineárny, a ak PATH C pohyb bude kruhový. PATH END - sa pouţíva na označenie ukončenia zadefinovávania pohybu robota po krivke. PATH START spúšťa samotný pohyb robota po vopred zadefinovanej krivke. Ukončenie programu: HALT zastaví program a resetuje ho. Potom po reštartovaní ide program znova od začiatku. 3 KNIŽNICE V JAZYKU JAVA NA SPRACOVANIE VIZUÁLNEJ STOPY V nasledujúcej časti je popis vytvorenia kniţníc v jazyku Java, ktoré vyuţívame vo finálnom programe (HMI rozhranie). Funkcia zavolaná z vytvorených kniţníc bude mať za úlohu vyhodnotenie obrazu nasnímaného pomocou kamery, alebo vyhodnotenie nasnímaného videa. Výstupom tejto funkcie budú súradnice stredu snímaného navádzaného lúča. Postup je nasledovný: skripty sa najprv vytvoria v prostredí MATLAB a následne sa preloţia do jazyku Java. Snímanie a následné vyhodnotenie obrazu vykonáme v programe MATLAB, konkrétne pomocou programového nástroja Image Acquisition Tool. Ten umoţňuje snímať a uloţiť obraz pomocou nainštalovaných kamier a zároveň nastaviť parametre snímania. Obr. 3 Príklad nasnímaného obrazu so svetlom z laserového ukazovátka Prvý vytvorený skript s názvom bodvision.m má za úlohu nastaviť parametre kamery, nasnímať obraz a vyhodnotiť ho. Výstupom tohto skriptu sú súradnice ťaţiska svetla z lasera na nasnímanom obraze. Vývojový diagram vytvoreného skriptu je znázornený na obr.4. Časť príkazov vo vývojovom diagrame, označená šedou farbou, sa vo finálnom skripte nebude pouţívať, slúţi len na kontrolu správnej funkčnosti skriptu počas jeho tvorby. 229
Obr.4 Vývojový diagram skriptu bodvision.m Druhý skript s názvom vision.m má za úlohu načítať video uloţené v počítači a vyhodnotiť jednotlivé obrazy tohto videa. Výstupom skriptu je potom matica všetkých súradníc ťaţiska svetla z lasera nasnímaného vo videu. Vývojový diagram druhého skriptu je znázornený na obr.4. Vysvetlenie jednotlivých príkazov vo vytvorených skriptoch: - function[centroid] = bodvision() príkazom function[out1, out2, ] = myfun(in1, in2,...) deklarujeme funkciu s názvom myfun a jej vstupy (in) a výstupy (out). Deklarácia funkcie sa musí nachádzať v prvom riadku skriptu a mala by mať rovnaký názov ako názov skriptu. V danom prípade je deklarovaná funkcia s názvom bodvision(), ktorá nemá ţiadne vstupy a výstupom sú súradnice stredu svetelného lúča. - cam1 = nastavenie_kam - príkazom cam1 = nastavenie_kam si do premennej cam1 načítame a uloţíme dáta o poţadovanom nastavení kamery zo súboru nastavenie_kam.mat. Aby načítanie bolo moţné, musí byť tento súbor v počítači uloţený v rovnakom priečinku ako skript bodvision.m, v ktorom tento príkaz pouţívame. - pic = getsnapshot(cam1) - príkazom frame = getsnapshot(obj) okamţite získame jeden nasnímaný obraz kamerou s definovanými parametrami snímania uloţenými v premennej obj, v mojom prípade v premennej cam1. - load(...) - Týmto príkazom do MATLAB-u načítame nasnímané video so svetlom z lasera, ktoré chceme vyhodnotiť. V zátvorke je napísaná cesta, kde je video v počítači uloţené. 230
- pic = vid1(:,:,:,j) - Príkaz pic = vid1(:,:,:,j) uloţí do premennej pic j - ty obraz načítaného videa vid1 so všetkými informáciami o danom obraze (rozlíšenie, RGB). - gr = rgb2gray(pic) - príkaz I = rgb2gray(rgb) konvertuje farebný RGB obraz I do obrazu v odtieňoch šedej tým, ţe eliminuje informácie o farebnom odtieni a jeho sýtosti pri zachovaní informácií o jase. Obr. 5 Vývojový diagram skriptu vision.m Obr. 6 Príklad zmeny obrazu po príkaze rgb2gray(pic) - bw = im2bw(gr,0.96) - príkaz BW = im2bw(i, level) má za úlohu, konvertovať obraz I v odtieňoch šedej do binárneho (čiernobieleho) obrazu. Výstupný ČB obraz nahrádza vo vstupnom obraze všetky pixely s hodnotou jasu vyššou ako je zadaná úroveň na pixely s 231
hodnotou 1 (biela) a všetky ostatné pixely nahrádza hodnotou 0 (čierna). Zadávaná hodnota úrovne musí byť z intervalu [0,1], pričom tento interval pomerne zodpovedá moţnej úrovni jasu v obraze. Zvolená úroveň 0.96 vhodná pre odčlenenie len miesta s najvyššou hodnotou jasu teda miesto, na ktoré svieti laser, je znázornené na obr.7. Obr. 7 Zmena obrazu po príkaze im2bw(gr,0.96) - bwo = bwareaopen(bw,80) - príkaz BW2 = bwareaopen(bw, P) slúţi na odstránenie všetkých uzavretých objektov zo vstupného binárneho obrazu BW, ktoré majú menej pixelov ako P a vytvorí z neho výstupný obraz BW2. Pričom uzavretý objekt je taký, v ktorom kaţdý jeho pixel susedí aspoň s jedným pixelom rovnakého druhu z 8 moţných susedných pixelov Týmto príkazom sa docieli, ţe na obraze bude len jeden objekt svetlo z lasera, pretoţe všetky ostatné objekty boli menšie ako počet pixelov, ktoré boli zadané (80). Obr.8 Zmena obrazu po príkaze bwareaopen(bw,80) - [B,L] = bwboundaries(bwo,'noholes')- [B,L] = bwboundaries(bw, option) je príkaz, ktorým rozlišujeme vonkajšie hranice objektov, hranice otvorov vo vnútri týchto objektov, rovnako ako aj hranice objektov uzavretých v nejakých objektoch s otvorom. Skúmaný obraz musí byť binárny, a potom nenulové pixely prislúchajú objektom a pixely s hodnotou 0 tvoria pozadie. Výstupom tohto príkazu sú dve matice B a L. Matica B je Px1 bunková matica, kde P je počet objektov. Zároveň kaţdá bunka v bunkovej matici B obsahuje Qx2 maticu, kde Q je počet hraničných pixelov konkrétneho 232
objektu. Teda matica B obsahuje údaje o počte objektov a súradnice hraničných pixeloch jednotlivých objektov. Matica L slúţi na priradenie popisu kaţdému pixelu na obraze, podľa toho či sa jedná o objekt alebo pozadie. Na označenie jednotlivých objektov pouţíva nezáporné celé čísla. Objekty sú označované vzostupne od čísla 1 a kaţdé jedno číslo predstavuje konkrétny uzatvorený objekt. Číslo 0 v matici označuje pozadie.v našom prípade máme na obraze len jeden objekt, teda matica B bude jednobunková a bude obsahovať súradnice hraničných pixelov toho jedného objektu, a matica L bude obsahovať iba jednotky, ktoré predstavujú objekt a nuly, ktoré predstavujú pozadie. Do zátvorky za príkazom môţeme pridať prídavnú poţiadavku, čo v našom prípade je 'noholes'. Tá zabezpečí, ţe sa budú hľadať len vonkajšie hranice objektu, s predpokladom, ţe snímaný objekt neobsahuje otvory. -stats = regionprops(l,'area','centroid','boundingbox')- príkaz stats = regionprops(l, vlastnosti) meria rôzne vlastnosti pre kaţdý označený objekt v matici L. Výstupom tohto príkazu je dátový typ, ktorý sa nazýva štruktúra. Štruktúra v sebe definuje pole premenných rôzneho typu, v našom prípade je dĺţka pola premenných rovná počtu objektov na obraze, teda max(l(:)). Zaujímajú nás nasledovné vlastnosti: -'Area' je to skalárna veličina a udáva počet pixelov, z ktorých sa skladá daný objekt. -'Centroid' je to vektor 1xQ, ktorý špecifikuje ťaţisko/stred daného objektu, pričom Q je počet rozmerov obrazu. V 2D obraze prvý prvok vektora udáva horizontálne súradnice ťaţiska (x), druhý vertikálne (y). -'BoundingBox' je to najmenší obdĺţnik obsahujúci celý objekt. Výstup je v tvare BoundingBox[ul_cornerwidth], kde ul_corner je v tvare [x,y] a určuje súradnice ľavého horného rohu obdĺţnika, width je v tvare (x_šírkay_šírka) a určuje šírku obdĺţnika pozdĺţ kaţdej osi. Vykreslenie grafu: Príkaz plot(x,y,'linespec'), pouţijeme na vykreslenie grafu s ťaţiskom objektu. Ako x a y súradnice zadáme súradnice ťaţiska, teda centroid(1) a centroid(2). Zadaním 'LineSpec'môţeme určiť akým spôsobom sa ťaţisko zobrazí v grafe ('ko'), zobrazí sa ako kruţnica čiernej farby. V našom prípade má príkaz tvar plot(centroid(1),centroid(2),'ko'). Príkaz axis([xminxmaxyminymax]) má za úlohu nastaviť minimálne a maximálne hodnoty x-ovej a y-ovej osi grafu. V našom prípade bude graf začínať od 0 a maximálne hodnoty budú zodpovedať rozlíšeniu snímaného obrazu, teda počtupixelov v jednotlivých osiach. Príkazt(stats(1).Centroid(1),stats(1).Centroid(2),sprintf('%2.1f,%2.1f,%2.1f',stats(1).C entroid(1),stats(1).centroid(2),stats(1).area),'edgecolor','b','color','r') je príkaz zabezpečujúci, ţe ku grafickému označeniu ťaţiska sa pridá textové označenie, v ktorom budú napísané 3 informácie a to: x-ová súradnica ťaţiska, y-ová súradnica ťaţiska a počet pixelov daného objektu.aby sa v grafe graficky znázornila aj BoundingBox, teda najmenší obdĺţnik obsahujúci celý objekt, pouţijeme príkaz rectangle('position', stats(1).boundingbox, 'EdgeColor','g'), ktorý vykreslí zelený obdĺţnik. 233
Obr. 9 Výstupný graf so súradnicami ťaţiska svetla z lasera Vo finálnej kniţnici v jazyku Java sa však tieto príkazy na zobrazenie grafu nebudú nachádzať, pretoţe nie sú pri navádzaní robotického systému potrebné. Slúţia len na kontrolu funkčnosti tohto skriptu vytvoreného v Matlabe, či správne vyhľadal svetlo z lasera na zosnímanom obraze. Výsledný vygenerovaný program na riadenie pohybu robota vo formáte textového súboru, ktorý je pripravený na odoslane do riadiacej jednotky robota je znázornený na obr. 10. ZÁVER Príspevok popísal moţnosti technickej realizácie navádzanie dráhy priemyselných robotov pomocou lúčového navádzania. Podrobnejší popis riešenia dáva jasný príklad realizácie pre priemyselné roboty ( v predloţenej verzii na roboty kinematickej konfigurácie SCARA). Výsledkom programu podľa vývojového diagramu znázorneného na obr. 10 sú získané videozáznamy, ktoré prezentujú funkčnosť a realizovateľnosť predloţenej teórie a následnej realizácie. 234
Obr.10 Vývojový diagram programu, ktorý generuje program na riadenie pohybu robota Práca bola realizovaná v rámci výskumného projektu VEGA MŠ SR č.1/0670/15 LITERATÚRA [1] YAMAHA MOTOR CO.: YK-X LongZSeries [online]. YAMAHA MOTOR CO. LTD., 2007. 60 s. [cit. 25.05.2012]. Dostupné na internete: http://www.yamaharobotics.com/catalog/pdf/currentmanuals/robot_e/yk-x- LZ_E_V2.03.pdf [2] Šonka, M.- Hlaváč,V.: Počítačové vidění. Praha: Grada a.s., 1992. 272 s. ISBN 80-85424- 67-3. [3] SICK IVP: Machine vision introduction. [online]. SICK IVP, 2006. 56 s. [cit.08.06.2012]. Dostupné na internete: http://www.sick.com/uk/enuk/home/products/product_portfolio/documents/machine%20vision%20introduction2_2 _web.pdf Expert proofreading of the article: Asoc. prof. Marian Králik, PhD. 235
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